S.Y.B.A. SEMESTER – III (CBCS) PAPER-IV RURALADMINISTRATION-munotes

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DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION -I

Unit Structure
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Key Concepts
1.4. District Administration
1.5. Evolution Of District Administration
1.6. Principles Of District Administration
1.7. Nature Of The District Administration
1.8. Summary
1.9. Keywords
1.10. Unit End Questions
1.11. References

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The district administration has its own origin from the Muslim revenue
system established by Sher Shah Suri 1529 – 45. He divided his empire
into 47 divisions or Sarkar, which was subdivided into 113, 000 parganas.
He established office of revenue at Sarkar and parganas. In the board
sense, deputy commissioner was a descendant of fozdar of Mughal
administration. The Mughal Empire was divided into province that is
subaas and district Sarkar. The provinces we re headed by governor who
was responsible for law and order and revenue collection. The district was
subdivided into parganas; which was headed by shiqandar who was
responsible for law and order and General administration. The Mughal had
no functionary at the village level, but mukaddam used to perform revenue
function. He used to collect revenue. Patawary was an accountant, who
uses to keep account of crop areas, the crops sown and revenue demanded.
In the Mughal system there was separation of judicial and revenue
collection functions. The British largely adopted the administration of
Mughal, in the north of sub -continent.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
Semester III there are Part -I and II related to all eight chapters. In the
chapter -1 we are going to deals with a numbe r of aspects related to the
district administration. In Lessons 3 to 8 we are going to study the course
content related to rural administration. The specific objectives of the munotes.in

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present lesson are as follows:
1) To understand the concepts of the‗night -watchm an state‘ andits
manifestation described as Law and Order Administration or
Revenue Administration.
2) To understand the concepts of ‗welfare state‘ and its manifestation,
described as Development Administration.
3) To understand the concept of district administration, which is broadly
divided into the revenue administration and development
administration?
4) To learnt about the territorial administration in India prior to the
advent at the British rule.
5) To learn about the evolution, i.e. th e origin, and development of the
district administration during the British rule.

1.3 KEY CONCEPTS
I) Night Watch -man State:
The 19th century liberals believed that the state that administers least is
the best state. Accordingly the functions of the stat e are limited to defense,
maintaining law and order and administration of justice. The colonial state
that existed in India limited the scope of its activities to the bare minimum
activities, in addition to protecting the interests of the British Empire.

II) Law and Order :
In a colonial state the scope of activities of administration was limited to
collection of revenue, maintaining law and order, and administration of
justice. The district administration undertook these activities, in addition to
very fe w developmental activities, during the British period. Owing to the
scope of its activities being limited to the traditional activities, it is
described as the law and order or revenue administration, headed by the
District Collector. The district administ ration continues to perform these
activities in the post -independent period.

III) Welfare state:
The 19th century socialists advocated expansion of the activities of the
state. They expected the state to promote welfare of the people by
undertaking activi ties such as education, health, employment generation
and social security. The state that cares for the well -being of the people
and undertakes welfare activities is described as a welfare state The Indian
state has assumed the responsibility of the welfar e of the people in general
and promoting rural development in particular therefore, the present
Indian state is a welfare state.

1.4 DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
District administration is the administrative machinery working at a munotes.in

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territorial administrative u nit described as district. The geographical area
of the state of Maharashtra has been divided into thirty five districts and
the administrative machinery of each of this administrative unit, i.e. a
district is the district administration.

What is District Administration?
The District Administration is the territorial unit of public administration
where the activities associated with public administration take place.
Accordingly to the Chamber's Twentieth Century Dictionary. District is a
sub-division of a division. It is a portion of territory Defined for political,
judicial, educational, (and) / or any other purposes. To further simplify in
administrative sense district is a territory marked off for special
administrative purpose.

Broadly speaking, the di strict is an area defined by the nature preferences
of neighboring social groups to make their collective life meaningful to
one another, and brought under a common administration. Its boundaries
are settled by the extent of their effective intercourse and by practical
considerations to enhance administrative convenience. The dissimilarities
in the size of districts both in area and population are largely attributable
to the natural preferences and to the extent of the effort at obtaining local
finality. A district can be created by the arbitrary exorcise o political will
as has been done in almost every state in India. The territorial structure of
administration in India is too ancient, being largely an adoption of the
Mauryan and neither the long line of h er conquerors nor her own genius
has shown any originality or innovative zeal to change it. The Mauryans
almost 2500 years ago created for the administration of their vijita
(empire) territorial system consisting of the grama (revenue village) sthana
(a gr oup of villages — revenue circle — or in some cases a small taluk),
the vishya (talukortahsi). ahara (district), the pradesha (division) and the
Janapada (province). Today district the basic unit of the Indian
administration.

On the other hand, the term ' administration' is desired form the Latin
Words 'ad' and 'ministrate'; which mean to care for or look after, or to
manage affairs.

According to L.D. While, the art of administration is the direction, co -
operation and control of many persons to achieve som e purpose or
objective, E.N. Gladden says. Administrationmeans to care or to look after
people to manage affairs 1a determined action taken in pursuit of
conscious purpose., Prof. John A. Vieg views administration as the
systematized ordering of affairs an d the calculated use of resources, aimed
al making those things happen which we want to happen and
simultaneously preventing developments that fall to square with our
intentions" Pfiffner defines administration "as the Organization and
direction of human a nd material resources to achieve desired ends. Nigro
says, 'The core of administration is the basic service which is performed
for the public such as the police and the protection, public works, munotes.in

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education, sanitation, social security, agricultural research , national
defense and others. Herbert A. Simon view, "It is the activities of group
co-operating to accomplish common goals. In the opinion of Luther
Gulick Administration has to do with getting things do, with
accomplishment of defined objectives.

Thus, administrative is the management or proper ordering, of the
collective activities of a group of people which is directed towards the
attainment of the consciously land down objectives. It is an effort "to
direct, guide and integrate associated1 human stri ving towards some
specific ends."

District administration is the management of the governmental activities
within a district. The governmental activities include implementation of
Laws arid policies, programmes and policies. For this purpose the
governmen t confers a number of powers are the functionaries at the
district level. The efforts of the district administration are directed towards
the realization of the goal that the state has set before itself. District
administration is manifestation of the gove rnment.

India is a country of vast area, having tremendous populations with
diverse and different cultures and climatic conditions, etc. ft is both
impracticable and inadvisable to conduct the administration of the whole
country from a single center or st ate. To administer the country
effectively, it is divided into districts and each state is divided into districts
and each district is sub divided into Taluk a or Tehsils. However, district
has become a strategic center of administration before and after
independence. Thus, India is currently divided in about 450 districts.

It is the most important administrative division our federal democratic set
up where it is expected to play a responsible and beneficial role. The
district administration: is no longer the custodian of law an order and
administration of justice alone but i t is also expected of it that it should
strive for the development of the district and create situation where people
have a feeling that they are living in a welfare state. S. S. Khera has
explained the purpose, position and the role of the district admini stration
very aptly in succinct words when he says that district administration Is
"the total management of public affairs within this unit.

The tact of the matter is that the activities and role of the distinct
administration cover a wide and varied ran ge. It is through the district
administration that the policies and programmes of economic development
and social change in the rural areas are to be implemented. During
successive Five -Year Plans, programme of rural development like
community development, co-operation, intensive agricultural
development, command area development, small farmer, marginal farmer,
agricultural labour development programme, drought prone area
programme, development of women and children of rural area and
employment programmes h ave been introduced. Moreover to give effect munotes.in

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to the concept of decentralized planning district administration is expected
to formulate district development plans linked up with state and national
plans. Apart from development functions, the district admini stration has to
face new challenges and new tasks of land reforms, dealing with natural
calamities such as drought, flood and fire, public distribution system, and
various types of welfare programmes, especially for the scheduled castes
and scheduled tribe s.

District administration has become the most powerful institution it is the
only media which has brought the totality of governmental machinery
nearer and closed to the people at the local level at their doorstep. Thus
district administration has become the primary unit of the Indian
administration and that the success and failure of the Indian state is linked
up with the performance of the district administration.

1.5 EVOLUTION OF DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
In spite of the fact that the system of territorial Administration goes back
to the Mauryan period and that the subsequent rulers from the Guptas to
the Mughals and the Marathas had their held units, the contemporary
district administration emerged during the British rule in India. At the end
of the British rule, the undivided India comprised of eleven provinces,
divided into 250 districts. The British in the early part of their rife
considered large districts were not only economic from the administrative
point of view but also conducive to the consolidation of their empire
through centralization of power However, towards the end of their regime
as communication and other facilities improved, they were convinced that
the district being the main field of government operations, should be of a
compa ct size The average area of a district was 11474 sq. kms., and the
average population was 9,31,030.

The East India Company's administration of three Presidencies of
Madras, Bombay and Bangal was looked after by its 'inerenants' and other
officials. The Company's march from a trading company into territorial
power started with the Battle of Plasey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar
(1764). The Company became a territorial power with the grant of the
Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa by th e Mughal Emperror Shah
Alam II in 1765, by signing the Treaty of Aflahabad in 1765. Thus it came
to have control over the revenue of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The work of
administration was theoretically in the hands of the Nawabs but actually it
was in th e hands of two deputy Nawabs, Muhammad Raza Khan for
Eengal and ShitabRal for Bihar who were Bengal, Bihar appointed by the
Nawab on the advice of the officials of the Company. The Company
collected revenue and paid fixed annual sums of 32 rupees for the
expenses of the Nizamat. The Company performed revenue functions but
the work of administration was not assumed by it. This system of
dividing the functions of government has been called the Rural
Government.
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1.5.1 The System of Rural Government :
There were several reasons for adopting the system of Rural Government.
Firstly, the Directors of the company feared that the assumptions of
responsibility would consume profits. Secondly, the company did not have
sufficient number of administrators for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thirdly,
foreign powers could be told that company was not extending territories
and thus their jealousy was not likely to be roused. In other words, it was a
screen concealing the political revolution in Bengal.

The system of Rural Gov ernment proved most defective in many ways.
Firstly, power was divorced from responsibility. Nawabwas responsible
for administration but he had no real power. The deputy Nawabs carried
on the administration but in practice theywere under the control of the
Company. The Company controlled the revenues as well as the army. The
Nawab had responsibility without power. Under these circumstances the
administration began to grow bad. The zamindars, the officials and the
Company's servants tyrannized the pe ople. According to Dr.
NandlalChatterjee, the system exhibited the adroitness of an
astuteschemer rather than the foresight of a responsible administrator. In
1769 -70 there wassevere famine in Bengal and about one -third population
died. The Company re mained a passive spectator and did nothing to
ameliorate condition of the starving masses. Rather its employees used the
occasion make profits. The second defect was that the Company itself did
not gain much. The Company had acquired the right of colle cting revenue
but its financial position had become very bad. The revenue was collected
through the native agents and the Directors felt that a good deal of it was
misappropriated by the native agent. The English supervisors were
appointed in 1769 but this aim did not improve matters. The Cultivators
Paid beyond their capacity but the Company did not grow rich. Thus the
system of Rural Government was a total failure. In the words of Kaye,‘ the
Rural administration made confusion worse confounded and corrup tion
more corrupt‘‘ In the words of Prof. Ramsay Muir,‘ Rural system of
Government was a complete failure from outset. In the first place the
abuses of private trade reached a greater height than ever. In the second
place, the demands of for increase of re venue led to gross oppression of
the peasantry.

Warren Hastings the Governor General of Bengal, dispensed with the
'Rural Government' in 1772 and divided the provinces of Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa into 4 divisions, each consisting of six districts. Hasting s
appointed the English District Collectors for revenue collection and
revenue administration. They were assisted by the native officers. The
right of revenue collection was given to the highest bidders for live years.
The system of bidding was made an ann ual affair in 1777. A Board of
Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the whole revenue
organization. For assisting the Board of Revenue local officers also
appointed. Three provinces wore divided into six divisions and cab
division was provided with a council of 5 members this was done to check
the corruption. The member of the Revenue Board was paid salary of Rs
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1.5.2. EMERGENCE OF DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION:
The system of Rural Government proved disastrous for the Company
because t he servants of the Company were carrying on private trade on a
large scale, it resulted in the neglect of Company's work. The employees
of the Company were ordered not to carry on private trade. Clive was of
the view felt that the salaries of the servants of the Company were low. He
wrote to the Directors of the Company to increase their salaries but they
did not agree. He began to giant monopoly of salt trade and began to
distribute its profits among the senior officers of the Company in a
graduated scale. In spite of these measures, the Company continued to
incur huge losses. It was compelled to approach the British Government
for financial assistance. The British Parliament enacted he Regulating Act
in 1773 and abolished the rural system of government. Th e office of the
Governor was created. Each of the presidencies was to be divided into a
number of districts. The district administration was entrusted to English
collectors. In addition, in every district civil and criminal courts were
established. The res ponsibility of administration of justice was entrusted to
the covenanted servants of the company. The collector was the principal
officer of revenue administration. This system was extended to Bombay
and Madras Presidencies subsequently.

1.5.3 SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT:
After taking over the responsibility of revenue and judicial administration,
it was feet necessary to assume the task of maintaining law and order. The
collector was assigned magisterial powers and the newly created police
force was placed under his contro l. Towards the end of the 18th century,
administration of prisons was placed under the control of the collector It
became necessary to look after the hygiene and health of the
prisons. The superintendent of the -prisons was assigned fun ctions related
with the public health. The frequency of epidemics necessitated creation
of public Health Department. The public works Department was
established to construct and maintain roads an public buildings. Gradually
the district administratio n assumed the responsibilities of education,
agriculture, irrigation and famine relief.

Towards the end of the 19m century, the famous Resolution of Lord
Rippon in 1882 proposed introduction of local a self -government and to
transform the district adminis tration into a local democracy The
Resolution envisaged a three -tier system of local government, viz. the
village council, the taluka board and district board. It was introduced in
many provinces and functioned with a great measure of success.

The Twentie th century witnessed the emergence of the mass nationalist
movement. Trio Non -cooperation movement, the Civil Disobedience
movement put great strain on the district administration. I.e. maintenance
of law and order and putting down the peaceful resistance became the top
priorities of the district administration. As a result the magisterial role of
the collector became more important and entrusted other responsibilities to
the. District level functionaries. Towards the end of the British rule, the munotes.in

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district a dministration had become one of the four pillars of the edifice of
the British Empire.

In conclusion, it may be said that British administration in India was
meant to serve colonial interests even when it meant better justice, more
security, appointment o f Indians at very low levels and also humanitarian
measures. Europeanization of Services in the higher positions was the
watchword of British administration. A very prompt collection of revenue
required a well -paid and efficient bureaucracy and a hierarchy of Courts.
Cost-efficiency impelled the employment of Indians in large numbers at
lower levels.

The district administration itself underwent two important phases of
changes under Cornwallis and Bentinck. The Cornwallis Code established
a system which c ame to be called the steel frame of British administration
in India. The Collector who was the King pin of d district administration
was no more to perform judicial and magisterial power which were now to
be exercised by district judges. The Munsiffs and t he Registrars at the
Zilaeven tried cases upto Rs. 50 and Rs. 200 respectively. The Zamindars
were not to be responsible for keeping peace in their areas. They had to
disband their police forces. A number of Police circles called Thanes were
established u nder Daroghas in every district which were placed under the
supervision of the Magistrate. In short, district administration was
controlled by two European officers: one designated as Collector of
Revenue and the other as a Judge and Magistrate. The Indian s were not
appointed in these positions. Even the District Superintendent of Police
later was always an Englishman.

In the Second phase, William Bentinck departed from the system of
Cornwallis. Now the administration came to rest on Commissioners
heading a division comprising many districts. The posts of
Superintendents of Police were abolished. The Divisional Commissioner
had under him such district officers as Collectors, magistrates and judges.
Bentinck gave the charge of sub -divisions to Indians who fu nctioned as
Joint Magistrates.

1.6 PRINCIPLES OF DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
 Openness and transparency : Transparency is a key element of public
trust and confidence . A commitment to transparency demonstrates to
the community that an agency and its officials have nothing to hide.
There are a variety of ways to show this commitment: Conscientious
observance of transparency laws.
 Democratic accountability: Political accountability is when a
politician makes choices on behalf of the people and the people have
the ability to reward or sanction the politician. In representative
democracies citizens delegate power to elected officials through
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 Implementing desired outcomes effectively and efficiently : The
purpose of local government is to provide an organized system where
councils exercise their power and responsibilities to work together for
peace, order and good governance of their municipal districts. Effective
local governments provide overall quali ty of life for the people who
reside in their communities.
 Being aware of community views: Active community participation in
project planning and implementation may improve project design
through the use of local knowledge ; increase project acceptability;
produce a more equitable distribution of benefits; promote local
resource mobilization; community views help ensure project
sustainability.
 Taking the long -term view : Development of strategic long –term
vision that defines desired sustainable development outcomes, to
enhance coherence across the government. Long term view regarding
policies will be more viable as for as different circumstances are
concern
 Recognising diversity : It means understanding dimensions of race,
ethnicity, gender, sexual orientatio n, socio -economic status, age,
physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies
of society to maintain basic principles of the constitutional framework.
 Providing opportunities to contribute to decision -making: The main
aim of public participation is to encourage the public to have
meaningful input into the decision -making process . Public participation
thus provides the opportunity for communication between agencies
making decisions and the public. ... Public participation can b e time -
consuming and sometimes expensive .
 Working collaboratively with other authorities :
Local government leaders are working across public, private and
administrative boundaries for the simple reason that by doing so they
can amplify their influence over economic development and get more
from their assets with partners than they can alone.
 Taking a sustainable approach : Local governments have significant
power and influence to determine whether policies and programs under
their authority create sustainabl e or unsustainable conditions. For
example, local governments largely have control over land use and
development. Through land use regulations and building codes,
municipal and county governments can promote and shape new
development that is sustainable: development that is compact,
conserving land and reducing the need for auto travel; powered by
renewable energy, energy and water -efficient and affordable to people
from all walks of life. Or, local governments can perpetuate
unsustainable development tha t gobbles up open space and farmland,
forcing more people to make more auto trips that worsen traffic,
increase air pollution and increase use of fossil fuels.
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1.7 NATURE OF THE DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
District administration is the basic unit of the Indian administration for
more than 200 years and occupied pivotal position in the Indian
administration. It Is viewed by the public administration scientists as a
'line agency' as well as the 'Field organization' of the Govemment of India
and the State Go vemment as the laws enacted by the Union Parliament
and the State Legislature, the policies and programmes of the Union and
the State Government are implemented by the administrative machinery at
the district level. On the other hand, the economist views t he district
administration as an agency of planning and development at the grass
roots level. The political scientists look at the district from the power
perspective and likes of Prof. V.M. Sirsikar regard it as the center of rural
political and economic power and a mechanism for the recruitment and
training of the second line of leadership.

The above mentioned the view points are partial description of the district
and the district administration. In fact, the district administration, in a
wider sense, i s an administrative entity, development agency as well as the
area of politics in the rural area.

1.7.1. DISTRICT AS A LINE AGENCY:
The line agencies are those which are concerned with the provision of
services for the people or regulating their conduct in particular fields.
These agencies are organized on the basis or major substantive purposes.
They are concerned with the primary objects for which the government
exists. .From top to bottom a single 'line' of authority runs downwards.
The activities of ' line* agencies are primary, i.e. those which they perform
in order to accomplish the purpose for which they exist. The hall marks of
district as a Line agency are as follows.
1) The line agencies are primary agencies which exist in order the
purpose for w hich they exist. The district administrations accomplish
the objectives of state policy by their implementation.
2) The task of line agencies is to run the services. The district
administration provides a number of services to people r the district.
3) The line agencies come in direct contact with the people. The district
administration provides the services to the people and is in direct
contact with the people.
4) The line agencies issue order down the line. The district
administration issues order and supervises working of the
administrative machinery. At the taluka and village level.
5) District administration serves the line agency to all departments of the
government of India and the state government. Each of these
departments has its district o ffice under the control of district officer.
The district collector home the principal officer, coordinates
functioning of all these district offices.
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1.7.2 District Administration as the Field Organization:
New Delhi is the capital of India from which th e country is supposed to be
governed or administered. In fact Delhi is the Head Quarter, the nerve
center from which instructions are Issued and carried out by the
administrative machinery spread over more than four thousand districts in
India. 7bus, "actu al" administration is carried out throughout the length
and breadth by thousands of administrative agencies set up by the
decision -makers who frame the policies, issue orders and instructions
supervise and direct working of the "agents". The structure of t he Indian
administration is multi -level and the district administration is the basic
unit of this structure and is, therefore, the field organization of the
Government of India and the Government of Maharashtra.

The Head Quarter is the central or supervis ing office, which is usually
situated in the National or State Capital. The Second Pay Commission thus
elaborated that "Head Quarter Organization of the Government of India
comprises of a number of Ministries and Departments." which together
constitute the Central Secretariat. However, the term "Head Quarter" is
used in the different context. Thus the State Governments are the
intermediate tier in the context of All India administration if, the State
Secretariat is the Head Quarter in the context of State a dministration.
Similarly, the district collectorate is the intermediate structure in the state
Registration: but Head Quarter in the context of district administration. In
any case the agency which performs the functions of direction, supervision
and contr ol in a given administrative set up could be regarded as the Head
Quarter.

In contrast, the agencies which receive and carry out instructions which is
subjected to supervision, direction and control, is regarded as a field
agency. The field district adm inistration performs these functions in India
for more than 200 years.

The organization of field agencies is either territorial or functional.
Willoughby describes them as unitary and multiple, in the territorial or
unitary form, the central authority cre ates area agencies and entrust them
all activities pertaining to that area. The officer in -charge of territorial unit
is the overseer of all specialized units within his area. Thus District
Collector is head of the district

Administration and coordinates the activities of the various departments
within the district and is in fact and is in fact the Principle officer' of the
government within the district. The heads of the specialized Departments
say public health or education or public works are subordinat e official in
relation to the district collector. In a rigid unitary pattern, which does not
exist in India? All communication from and to field agencies are routed
through the Principal Officer.

In the functional or multiple forms, the different dep artments have their
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contact with them. District Collector is the coordinating authority in the
area. However, each function is treated as an independent activity and as
such there is mul tiplicity of as agencies in the district.

The line of authority runs directly from the Head Quarter to field agency
Thus, territorial and functional forms are not mutually exclusive categories
and depending on the requirements of administration, territori al or
functional forms and used administration, territorial and functional forms
are used.

1.7.3 District Administration as The Agency of Rural:

Development:
The development programs, schemes and projects of the numerous
departments of the Government of India and the Govemment of
Maharashtra are implemented through the district administration. The
funds for such activities are channelized through the district level
administration. The Community Development Programme, described as
the regular development activities, is implemented under the direction,
supervision and control of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the
ZillaParishad in Maharashtra. The development administration machinery
in the district is placed under the control of th e CEO. In 1970's a number
of special rural poverty alleviation and employment generation commands
like programs like command area development agency, the Small Farmers
Development Agency and the Employment Guarantee Schemes were
launched. For these special development agencies were set up at district
level. These agencies functioned under the supervision direction and
control of the district collector. In 1980‘s the numerous development
programs were merged into the integrated rural development Programme
(IRDP) the district level agencies were merged into a single agency,
functioned under the direction, supervision and control the District
Collector.

Thus the regular and special development activities are guided by the CEO
and the district collector.

In addition, the District! Planning and Development (DPDC) were set up
in 1972 as the basic unit of multi level panning in India. The need based
planning or the district is undertaken for the district by the DPDC. The
DPDC has become a representative body unde r the 73th amendment as
planning and development for the district has been made the responsibility
of the ZillaParishad.

In nutshell, the district administration, i.e., the District Collector's office
and the ZillaParishads, i.e., the district level repre sentative body has
become the agency of rural development in the post 1947 period. This is a
significant development in view of the fact that even today about 70% of
the population lives in villages.
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1.7.4 District As the Center of Journal and Economic power:
The post -independence period witnessed the emergence of the three -tier
Panchayati Raj institution and the spread of the co operative movement in
the rural area. The Panchayati Raj institutions and the cooperative
societies were intended to be the inst ruments of rural development.
However, the Panachayati Raj institutions have been given substantial
functions and powers and the cooperative institutions have enormous
funds at their disposal. This led to their transformation as the twin centers
of power i n the rural area. We witness intense inter party and intra party
struggle to secure control over these institutions among the rural elite. This
has resulted in acute politicization of the Panchayati Raj and cooperative
institution.

The most important amo ng these centers of power are the ZillaParishad
the District Central Cooperative Bank and the other district level
cooperative organizations. The control over these institutions enables the
grass roots level leadership to acquire their mass base and thereb y
perpetually retain their control on the district politics. The more ambitious
among the district level leaders have moved up to the state level and some
of them have become not only MLAs but also ministers and even Chief
Minister.

The positive outcome o f setting up of the Panchayati Raj and cooperative
institutions has been the Opportunities provided to the grass roots level
leadership in the public life. As a result, a second line of leadership has
emerged at the district taluka and village level.

1.8 SUMMARY
District administration is the total management of public affairs within this
unit.‖ The district is kept under the charge of a district officer —called
either Deputy Commissioner or District Collector who acts as the eyes,
ears and arms of the St ate Government . District administration in India is a
legacy of the British Raj . As district magistrate, he exercised general
supervision over the inferior courts and in particular, directed the police
work. The office was meant to achieve the "peculiar purpose" of collecting
revenue and of keeping the peace

1.9. KEYWORDS Panchayati Raj Oldest system of local government in the Indian. Law and Order The enactment of laws for peace in the state. Welfare state System Undertakes well-being of its citizens
1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Descriptive:
1) Define the concept of 'District Administration and explain its nature. munotes.in

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2) Trace the evolution of the district administration during the British
period.
3) Give an account of the changes in the district administration in the
post-Independence period.

MCQs:
i) Which of the following committee recommended for Panchayati Raj
System in India?
A. PunchhiSamiti.
B. Balwantrai Mehta Committee.
C. Gandhi Committee.
D. Neharu Committee
ii) How many tiers are in the Panchayati Raj system of India?
a. One-tier
b. Two-tier
c. Three -tier
d. Four -tier
iii) Who is the Revenue head at District level?
A. Collector.
B. Block Development Officer.
C. Tahasildar.
D. Dy. Officer.

1.11 REFERENCES
 Local Government. S.R. Maheswari Local Government in India.
 Administrative Reform. P.R. Dubbashi Administrative Reforms.
 Administration of Law and Order. K. K. Sharma Law and Order
Administration in India.
 www.google.com

*****
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2

DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION -II

Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Key Concepts
2.4 Post-Independence Developments Of District Administration
2.5 Components Of District Administration.
2.6 The Role And Functions Of District Administration
2.7 Summary.
2.8 Keywords.
2.9 Unit End Questions
2.10 References

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Rural administration, in the operational terms, has been described as the
district administration. This is due to the fact a district is a specific
administrative unit consists range of 6 to 8 Talukas and each Taluka has
over 100 villages. These villages a re administered by the functionaries of
the district administration. The present -day district administration in India
had evolved during the British period, precisely from 1770 onwards. A
number of changes were brought about in the district administration
during the post -independence period. However, the basic structure of the
district administration has remained unchanged. What is more significant
to note the scope and area of activities have expanded many -fold in the
post-independence period? The new acti vities which were entrusted to the
district administration are developmental in nature. As such, the district
administration in the post -independence period is broadly divided into the
revenue administration and development administration. Collector, who i s
believed to be heart of administration in a district.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
In this chapter we will discuss the changes in district level administrations
in post -independence period with its various components with following
objectives:
i) To explain how the changes brought to district administration after
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ii) To know the various components of district level administration.
iii) To understand the concept of 73rd & 74th constitutional amendments.
iv) Understand the features of 73rd and 74th constitutional ame ndment
v) To know the role and functions of district administration.

2.3 KEY CONCEPTS
Administration: the act of directing people towards accomplishing a
goal.

Constitutional Amendments : A constitutional amendment is a
modification of the constitution of a polity, organization or other type of
entity

Component: a part or element of a larger whole.

2.4 DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN THE POST -INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
With independence, many structural, organizational and functional
changes in district administration took place. The changes, as many tend to
believe, were not aimed a wholesale rejection of the colonial system. The
new rulers had highest regard and respect for British institutions, but these
changes were necessitated by the requir ement of an elected government to
fulfill the hopes and aspirations of the people. The phenomenon of the
"revolution" of rising expectations had emerged as a result of greater
awakening amongst the masses. There wanted more and more facilities to
be provid ed in rural area Related to this was increasing politicization in
the wake of successive elections and also introductions of Panchayati Raj
and co -operative institutions. Above all the struggle for survival had
increased as a result of growing pressure of population on land. The need
for the provision of employment opportunities in the non -farm sector had
become very acute. After the independence, the socio -economic political
and administrative environment had changed substantially. It was realized
that cen tralization of power in a single officer in the district was a
necessity for the British regime to promote imperial interest and for
acceptance of its authority by the largest number of people. The
acceptance of democracy as the way of life and governance necessitates
changes in the district administration.

Creation of New Districts:
After the attainment of independence, every state in India has restored to
the creation of new districts solely for political reasons ignoring even the
basic relation between their area and population and mounting cost of their
administration. There were 250 districts in 1997, 360 districts in 1981 and
more than 450 districts today. What is more distressing is the fact that,
country is basic tent of secularism in the constituti on, in Kerala and munotes.in

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Kashmir, the areas of Muslims concentration were marked out to form
separate districts disregarding organizational imperatives and flouting the
much professed secular principles and properties.

Separation of Revenue, Magisterial And Development Section:
The first wave of change which hit the district administration were the
program of Community Development (CD) and National Extension
Service (NES) inaugurated in the (ears 1952 and 1953 respectively In the
rural segment was divided in to 5011 Development Blocks. Block
Development Officers (BDO) were appointed for each of these blocks,
Some states also introduced the post of District Development Officer
(DDO). Some states ventured into appointing the District Planning Officer
(DPO). The development machinery at the district level was placed under
the control of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) in Maharashtra
However, the DDOs, the DPOs and the CEOs were officers of revenue
service and were also appointed or transferred as the District co llector and
Additional District Magistrate. Thus, the approach of the Government of
India and the State Governments towards district administration was halt -
hearted In spite of separation of revenue and development functions, the
functionaries of the two s egments belonged to the revenue services.

In the beginning, the developmental activities were not pail of the normal
administrative functions and the district administration was more or less
kept insulated. All development projects and their execution wer e under a
separate development agency. This Separation of revenue and
development functions ended in 1970s. The District Collector was made
the coordinator of all rural poverty alleviation activities within in his
district. Khera opines that with Ire distr ict level officer treating his head
OT department as the real boss the DC as The dummy boss. with the
Ostensible object of democratic decentralization of power and of
following direct Participation by the people in the administration and
development, th e studyTeam headed by Balwantrai Mehta recommended
introduction of three -tier Panchayati Raj institutions in 1957. In the hill
areas, inhabited by tribal, corresponding institutions like Hill Areas
Advisory Board, and District Councils were introduced at a later stage.
The main impetus was to transform the bureaucratic ruler's image of the
DC to that of being a servant of the people, willing to implement the
people's wish. It was also further thought that the DC would be relieved of
his development relate d duties by the Panchayat Raj institutions and he
would thus be able to devote his time on more important job&

Establishment of The New Panchayati Raj With 73rd & 74th
Constitutional Amendments:
Though the Panchayati Raj Institutions have been in existen ce for a long
time, it has been observed that these institutions have not been able to
acquire the status and dignity of viable and responsive people's bodies due
to a number of reasons including absence of regular elections, prolonged
supersession, insuff icient representation of weaker sections like Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women, inadequate devolution of powers
and lack of financial resources. Article 40 of the Constitution which munotes.in

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enshrines one of the Directive Principles of State Policy lays down that the
State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with
such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function
as units of self -government. In the light of the experience in the last forty
years and in view of the short -comings which have been observed, it is
considered that there is an imperative need to enshrine in the Constitution
certain basic and essential features of Panchayati Raj Institutions to impart
certainty, continuity and strength to them. Acc ordingly, it is proposed to
add a new Part relating to Panchayats in the Constitution to provide for
among other things, Gram Sabha in a village or group of villages;
constitution of Panchayats at village and other level or levels; direct
elections to all seats in Panchayats at the village and intermediate level, if
any, and to the offices of Chairpersons of Panchayats at such levels;
reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
proportion to their population for membership of Panch ayats and office of
Chairpersons in Panchayats at each level; reservation of not less than one -
third of the seats for women; fixing tenure of 5 years for Panchayats and
holding elections within a period of 6 months in the event of supersession
of any Panch ayat; disqualifications for membership of Panchayats;
devolution by the State Legislature of powers and responsibilities upon the
Panchayats with respect to the preparation of plans for economic
developments and social justice and for the implementation of
development schemes; sound finance of the Panchayats by securing
authorisation from State Legislatures for grants -inaid to the Panchayats
from the Consolidated Fund of the State, as also assignment to, or
appropriation by, the Panchayats of the revenues o f designated taxes,
duties, tolls and fees; setting up of a Finance Commission within one year
of the proposed amendment and thereafter every 5 years to review the
financial position of Panchayats; auditing of accounts of the Panchayats;
powers of State Le gislatures to make provisions with respect to elections
to Panchayats under the superintendence, direction and control of the chief
electoral officer of the State; application of the provisions of the said Part
to Union territories; excluding certain State s and areas from the
application of the provisions of the said Part; continuance of existing laws
and Panchayats until one year from the commencement of the proposed
amendment and barring interference by courts in electoral matters relating
to Panchayats.

Salient Features :
The Salient features of the Seventy -Third Constitution Amendment Act
are given below:

The Amendment stipulates for certain compulsory provisions which are
obligatory on the part of the State Governments to incorporate in their
respective Acts. Some aspects have, however, been left at the discretion of
State legislatures to make suitable pro visions in their Act. The mandatory
provisions are:

(A) Establishment of ‗Gram Sabha‘ at the village level comprising of munotes.in

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persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised
within the area of Panchayat (Article 243(b). The State, wh ere Gram
Sabha does not exist, will have to make such provision.

(B) Establishment of a three -tier system of Panchayat, at the village,
intermediate and district levels, in all the States and Union Territories
(UTs) except in those having a population of less than twenty lakhs where
Panchayats at intermediate level need not be constituted. The States which
will fall under this category as per 1991 census are Goa, Sikkim, all the
North Eastern States and UTs.

(C) All levels of Panchayats will consist of persons elected directly from
the territorial constituencies in the Panchayat area. The territorial
constituencies shall be carved out in such manner that the ratio between
the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it
should b e uniform throughout the Panchayat area as far as practicable.

(D) All members‘ of the Panchayat whether or not directly elected shall
have the right to vote in the meetings of the Panchayats.

(E) The chairperson of a Panchayat at the intermediate and district level
shall be elected from among the directly elected members representing the
territorial constituencies.

(F) Reservation of seats for SCs/STs in proportion to their population in
the Panchayat area and seats may be allotted by rotation.

(G) One-third of the total number of seats, both in reserved and unreserved
categories shall be apart for women in every Panchayat and seats may be
allotted by rotation.

(H) The chairperson of each level of Panchayats shall be reserved for
SCs/STs in proportion to their population on rotation basis. Similarly, one -
third post of chairpersons of each level of Panchayats shall be reserved for
women on rotation basis.

(I) A fixed tenure of five years for Panchayats from the data appointed for
its first meeting and the tenure cannot be extended. However, if a
Panchayat is dissolved before the expiry of its term, election is too
conducted within a period of six months of the di ssolution to reconstitute
the Panchayat for the remainder of the terms of the term provided the
remainder of the period is not less than six months. The Panchayats shall
be constituted before the expiry of its tenure of five years.

(J) Amendment of law t o dissolve the Panchayats at any level is also
prohibited.

(K) A person who has attained twenty one years of age is eligible for a
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(L) Constitution of a Finance Commission in the State within one year
from the commencement of the Constitution Amendment Act initially and
thereafter every five years to review the finances of the Panchayats and
recommended the principles on the basis of which the taxes to be
appropriated by, or assigned to the Panchayats as also grant -in-aid to the
Panchayats from the consolidated fund of the State. The action taken on
the recommendation of the Commission shall be laid before the
Legislature of the State.

(M) Audit of the accounts of the Panchayats to be done.

(N) A State Election Commission ha s to be constituted for the
superintendence, direction and control of the Panchayats at all levels. The
State Election Commissioner, however, shall be removed in the manner
and on the like grounds as a Judge of a High Court.

(O) The Act is applicable to all States and Union Territories. Exemption is
being ranted to certain states and tribal areas and other territories from the
application of the provisions of part IX of the Constitution and powers to
the President and the Governor to modify the provisions of the IX in their
application to Union Territories and Scheduled areas, respectively.

(P) The existing laws relating to Panchyats which are inconsistent with the
provision of the Act shall continue to be enforced until it is amended or
repealed within one year. The existing Panchayats shall continue till the
expiration of their terms unless they are dissolved by the competent
authority.

(Q) Courts are not to interface in the electoral matters such as delimitation
of constituencies, allotment of seats and election to any Panchayat.
Petition challenging the election of any Panchayat can be presented to
besides these mandatory provisions the State Legislature has been
empowered to have legislation in respect of a wide range of subjects,
including on such matters as functions of the Panchayats and so on .

74th Amendment Act 1992 In India:
The constitution 74th Amendment Act 1992, relating to Municipalities
(Urban local Government) was passed by the parliament in 1992.

It received the assent of the preside nt of India on 20th April 1993. The Act
seeks to provide a common framework for the structure and mandate of
urban local bodies to enable them to function as effective democratic units
of local Self Government. Government of India notified 1st June 1993 as
the date from which the 74th Amendment Act came into force. The Act
provided for a period of one year from the date of its commencement,
within which the then existing municipal laws (which were in force at that
time In states/union territories) were requ ired to be
changed/amended/modified in order to bring them in conformity with the
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The Salient Features of the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992:
(a) Constitution of Municipalities.
(b) Comp osition of Municipalities.
(c) Constitution of wards committees.
(d) Reservation of seats.
(e) Fixed duration of Municipalities.
(f) Power, Authority and responsibilities of Municipalities.
(g) Appointment of State Election Commission.
(h) Appointment of State Finance Commission.
(i) Constitution of Metropolitan and District Planning Committees.

Separation of Judiciary And Executive:
The Directive Principles of State policy presented separation of indicial
and executive functions Separation of judiciary at district level was
introduced in gradual phases. This arrangement was made with much hope
of social justice, General. K.V. Krishna Rao Governor of Manipur has said
that law is required to maintain order, it needs to be added that law must
be enforced strongly and expeditiously to guarantee order. Quick
enforcement is the main requirement.

Specialised Agencies:
During 1970s a large number of rural poverty alleviation programs were
launched and their implementation agencies were es tablished at the district
level. For example, District Industrial Centre (DIC) was established to
promote rural industrialization, It does not seem to matter whether that
particular district has raw material for any kind of industry or not, or
whether the requisite competence is available or not, the industry must
be established Thus the district administration is entrusted hundreds
of, tasks, i, is competent to handle.

2.5 COMPONENTS OF DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
The history of Indian admin istration shows that in the early stages of
evolution a single authority, represented by the Collector/Deputy
Commissioner, and had direct charge of all these functions of government
at the district level. In course of time, local sell -governing institut ions
were introduced and the technicaldepartments were set up. So instead of
unity of command theredeveloped multiplicity of command. Alter the
enforcement of Government of India Act. 1919 and later, the Government
of IndiaAct. 1935. Today the Distric t Administration has
three major component namely revenue, magisterial and developmental.
Apart from this major component, other miscellaneous departments and
accordingly functions are entrusted to the department by State and Central
governments like condu ct of elections, dealing with calamities,
supervising local government institutions, etc.

The District is the Principal Administrative unit below the state munotes.in

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level. It is a unit of administration covering most of the
departments of Government.

Law and order and magisterial field matters: the first group of
functions relates to public safety and tranquility. Maintenance of law and
order is the joint responsibility of the superintendent of police, who heads
the police force in the district, and the distri ct magistrate. The deputy
commissioner of the district is also the district magistrate. Though there is
a separate department for the administration of jails, the district magistrate
exercise general supervision of the jails in the district.

Land revenue: the second group of function relates to revenue
administration. While the most important component of this group is land
administration including maintenance of land records, it also includes the
assessment and collection of land revenue and also collecti on of other
public dues which are collected as arrears of land revenue. The deputy
commissioner is a designated revenue officer in various laws governing
the land to deal with disputes arising out of land records and management
of public lands and properti es. The other revenue officers, namely, the
assistant commissioners, with the tahsilder and the deputy tahsildaralso
perform functions of dealing with land disputes under the overall
supervision and control of the deputy commissioner.

Development activities: these include public health education, social
welfare, welfare of backward classes and communities. Each of these
functions is looked after by separate department, headed by specialist
officer in the district. The various special economic progr ams like
JawaharGramaSamrudhiYojana (JGSY),
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SwarnajayanthiGramaSwarozgarYojana, etc., and the poor people‘s
housing scheme Ashraya are implemented by the zillaParishad in each
district. The Deputy Commissioner does not get a direct role in these
schemes. However since these programs called for an integrated effort by
various field departments at the district level, public works department(
PWD) and minor irrigation, forest etc., the role of the District Collector in
coordinating and guiding their activiti es is of prime importance for
successful implementation of these programs. Social Security majors like
old age pension, widow‘s pension, maternity allowances to expectant
mothers and stipends to physically handicapped persons, workmen‘s
compensations matte r rehabilitation of displaced persons under various
projects aids for religious and charitable institutions and endorsements are
also carried out.

A survey of the history of Indian administration shows that in the early
stages of evolution a single author ity, represented by the Collector/Deputy
Commissioner, and had direct charge of all these functions of government
at the district level. In course of time, local sell -governing institutions
were introduced and the technical departments were set up. S o instead
of unity of command there developed multiplicity of command. Alter the
enforcement of Government of India Act. 1919 and later, the Government
of IndiaAct. 1935 this change became more and more marked, that is why
the Central Administration Reform s Commission is of the opinion that the
regulatory tasks are to be performed by the Collector and the development
tasks are to be left in charge of Panchayati Rajinstitutions. The setting up
of functional departments led to the setting up of field agencies of the
technical departments at the district level resulting in supplementing the
area administration of the district by functional type of administration
leading to multiplicity of command. This dichotomy as continued with
varying emphasis right to this day. The district has thus become a sort of
sub-capital where are located the district headquarters of the various
technical departments. Their nomenclatures as also the official designation
of officers heading them differ from one state to the other, but the
following may be said to be a representative list:

Other Miscellaneous Departments on District Administration :
Name of Department Designation of the District Head 1. Agriculture District, Agriculture Officer / Assistant Director of Agriculture 2. Backward Classes/ Harijan Welfare Backward Classes Welfare Officer/ Harijan Welfare Officer 3. Co-operation Assistant/ Deputy Registrar of Co - operative Societies 4. Education District Education Officer/ Inspector of Schools 5. Employment District Employment Officer 6. Excise District Excise Officer / Superintendent of Excise munotes.in

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7. Forest Divisional / District Forest Officer 8. Health and Family Planning District Health Officer 9. Industries District Industries Officer / Assistant 10. Jails Superintendent of Jails 11. Judiciary District & Sessions Judge 12. Labour Assistant Labour Commissioner/ District Labour Officer 13. Medical District Medical Officer / Civil Surgeon 14. Panchayats / Panchayats and Social Services District Panchayat Officer 15. Planning District Planning Officer 16. Police Superintendent of Police 17. Publicity /Information District Publicity Officer /Assistant 18. Public Works Executive Engineer 19. Registration Collector 20. Revenue and General Administration Collector 21. Sales Tax District Sales Tax Officer 22. Statistics District Statistics Officer 23. Treasury & Accounts District Accounts Officer /Treasury Officer 24. Veterinary and Animal Husbandry District Veterinary Officer / Assistant Director of Veterinary Services.
2.6 THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
The district administration is the operative unit of the Government of India
and the State Government. In fact, the district has always existed as the
unit of administration in some form throughout the long history of our
country. Thus The Mauryas, who est ablished the first historically
identified empire in India, with a view to administering their huge empire
efficiently and effectively, divided into provinces. These were sub divided
into districts known ahars, vishyas and pradesas. Ashok's inscriptions re fer
to rajukas and pradeshikas as officers chargedwith the welfare of the
janpads and pradeshas or districts. Under the Guptas the kingdom was
divided into provinces. The Province was divided into vishvas ormandalas.
The officer incharge of vishayas was ca lled ayuktavishyapati. The Mughal
emperors continued to follow this system. For purpose of administration
and revenue collection, this system. For puny ^ provinces or subahs which
in turn, the Empire was divided into provinces or subahs which in turn
were subdivided into sarkars and districts. Each sarkar was composed of a
number of parganas and each pargana was a union of several villages. The
sarkar was the counterpart of the modern district and the term is
significant as it means government in its total manifestation. The British munotes.in

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saw no reason to depart from age old pattern of area administration and
gave place of pride to the district as the basic unit of administration. Thus,
under the British rule, the district became virtually a sort of sub -capital
both in administrative and political sense. Independent India Too has kept
up the tradition and the district continues to retain its position as the pivot
of the structure of the structure of administration and government in the
states. It is at this level t hat the policies of the government are translated
into practice and the problems of local people are studied and
communicated to the state government. It is in the district that the big and
complex machine of government is in operation and it is by its
accomplishments at this vital center that we can measure the extent of
success of governmental policies, plans and programs. It may be truly said
that the district is the unit of administration with which almost every
citizen comes into contact. Every village and town in the country forms
part of a district. The district is also an important unit for electoral
purposes and every political party attempts to build up a strong
organization of this level. It is in this sense that the district can be
described gene rally as the center of political and administrative life.

Most departments of the state government have field units which are
located in the district. In certain cases even the Union Government has its
field agencies located at this level. The sum total o f the activities of these
departments and some others connected with the affairs of the union
government, together constitute the administrative machinery of the
district. In the words of Khera, "District administrations the total
functioning of government in a district; that total and complex
organization of the management of public affairs at work, dynamic and not
static in the territory of a geographically demarcated district administration
includes all the agencies of government the individual officials and
functionaries, public servants all institutions for the management of public
affairs in the district, ail the bodies corporate such as the panchayats of
different kinds of advisor^ bodies associated with the administration.

The many and the varied t asks of district administration can be
classified into six groups such as:

A) Regulatory: These function are primary in nature non developmental
in nature, Coercive Semi coercive and moreover activities which are
related to maintenance of order and disciplined society. Functions like
– law & order, magisterial function activities Revenues coll ection.
B) Listening and regulatory : the collector is the licensing and
regulatory authority under various special laws such as arms and
cinematography act ad sets in the district.
C) Developmental: At the district level, the primary object is to
coordinate the work of various agencies concerned with development
and to associate with them representative‘s non -official and others
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D) Tasks concerning local bodi es: Coordination and supervision of
development programs have to be organized at various levels —in the
taluka or the development block, in the district or the sub -division, for
a group of districts constituting a region and at the State level.
E) Conducting e lections: Collector is District Election Officer. District
Election Officer is responsible for conducting smooth Elections of
Loksabha and Assembly in his district as per program declared by
Election Commission of India. Election Branch provides suitable
assistance to the Collector and District Election Officer,
F) Emergency: The District Authority shall act as the district planning;
coordinating and implementing body for disaster management and
take all measures for the purposes of disaster management in the
district in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National
Authority and the State Authority.
G) Residuary: Any function of the government in the district which is
not allocated to any line department automatically comes within the
jurisdiction of the district collector. Oversees the implementation of
the public distribution system. Enforce provisions of the essential
commodities act and related rules and orders. The district collector is
also chairman of large number of committees at district level .

Obviously the first two of these constitute the most important tasks. The
regulatory functions include the maintenance of law and order, control of
crime and administration of justice. Next to law and order comes land
administration, which includes the assessment and collection of land
revenue and other public dues which are collected as arrears of land
revenue, such as sales -tax, forest and excise tax, income -tax, etc. The third
important group of regulatory and executive functions comprises control,
regulation and distribution of food and civil supplies. Under development
come functions like agricultural production, co -operation, animal
husbandry and fisheries and welfare activities like public health,
education, and social welfare. The last group of f unctions concerns the
administration of local bodies, urban and rural. The fourth task concerns
the holding of elections to parliament, the state legislature and local
bodies. The fifth task is related to emergencies and natural calamities. The
last catego ry of functions consists of executive work done, which have not
been precisely defined not is there a separate representative of the
government in the district to perform them. The Collector, in his capacity
as the chief representative of the government, i s to perform these tasks
which also include such miscellaneous functions as issue of arm licenses,
their renewal, suspension and cancellation, enforcement of special Acts,
small savings campaigns; publicity and public relations and protocol
duties.

2.7 SU MMARY
Every district has Collector as head appointed by the State government munotes.in

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and district is divided into Sub -Division under the charge of Sub -
Divisional Officers; these are further split into blocks which are headed,
by the Tahsildar, below the Tahsil l ies the Pargana/Revenue Circle under
the charge of Revenue Inspector and then comes the lowest primary unit,
namely, the village whose important official is the Patwari or Talathi or
Village Accountant, as far as revenue department is concern. Civil and
Development unit is consisting of CEO ( Chief Executive Officer ) BDO
(Block development Officer ) And VDO ( Village Development officer ) or
Gramsevak which are concern with development of the three tire system
of the rural administration.

2.8KEYWORDS Administration The act of managing duties, responsibilities, or rules. Amendment Addition or alteration made to a constitution. Pargana A group of villages or a subdivision of a district
2.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Descriptive:
1) Explain various components of 'District Administration.
2) Write detail note on 73rd constitutional Amendments.
3) Give an account of the changes in the district administration in the
post-Independence period.

MCQs:
i) Which of the following is an important component of district
administration?
A. Revenue
B. Health
C. Education
D. Entertainment

ii) 73rd Constitutional Amendments are related to_____.
a. Municipality
b. Panchayati Raj.
c. State affairs
d. Parliament.


iii) Who is the village level revenue officer?
A. Talathi
B. Collector
C. Gramsevak munotes.in

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D. Police Patil.

2.10 REFERENCES
 Local Government. S.R. Maheswari Local Government in India.
 Administrative Reform. P.R. Dubbashi Administrative Reforms.
 Administration of Law and Order. K. K. Sharma Law and Order
Administration in India.
 www.google.com

*****


































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3

REVENUE ADMINISTRATIONS IN INDIA
(Part -I)

Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction.
3.2 Objectives of The Lesson.
3.3 Concept.
3.4 Historical Background Of Revenue Administration
In India.
3.5 Ancient Indian Taxation System.
3.6 Revenue Administration During The Mughal Period.
3.7 Land Revenue System of The Marathas.
3.8 Evolution Of Revenue Administration During The
British Period.
3.9 Scope of Revenue Administration.
3.10 Determination of Land Revenue .
3.11 Summary.
3.12 Keywords.
3.13 Unit End Questions.
3.14 References.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
India is a country of villages, two thirds of the population still resides in
villages. Even after 70 years of our own planning, we are getting to see
that, rural areas are deprived from the development and regional balance.
The situation winding gap betwe en urban and rural area. In last seventy
years we have spent lots of funds through the budget, but as per my
opinion funds is not only problem. Here administrative pattern and
machinery also responsible for that. In the rural or district level
administrati on, revenue administration play vital role in the development
of the backward part of our country.

Revenue administration has been and will continue to be one of the most
important areas of district administration. This is mainly because of the
population on land for their livelihood, and they are regularly in contact of
the department. Land revenue adm inistration does not include only
collection of land revenue but it also extends to survey and settlement,
land reforms, revenue loans, certificates, stamps, excise, etc. Even in the
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India, land revenue was the most important source of governmental
income. Thus, assessment and collection of land revenue were the most
important activities of the governments during these periods.

The Revenue Department is the only department which empathize s with
the need of the public and is always present to ease the situation. Country
like India which has large population and agriculture is main occupation
especially in the rural area. The revenue department has lots of task to do
for the welfare of the p ublic, including land reforms and welfare of the
weaker section. Because of the wrong land related policies and its
implementation, Indian People were exploited for long time. After
independence there is little good change in revenue administration, but
still that is not enough. There is a big scope to improve the department as
far as welfare and upliftment of rural people is concern.

3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
The aim of this unit is to explain the concept of land revenue, its historical
evolution and changing perspectives over different historical time periods
– from ancient to the modem. Further, an attempt has been made to
acquaint you with the new initiatives taken by the Government of India
after the country's independence and various measures ini tiated for the
transformation of land revenue administration in the country. There are
main few objective of the lessons are:
1. To understand the concept of revenue administration, as well as land
revenue especially in rural area.
2. The lesson has another aim of understanding the post -independence
period changes in the department.
3. To understand the land related issues and change in policies.
4. To know about present machinery of revenue department and its
various functions.
5. To understand the system of collection o f land revenue even from the
Mughal empire.
6. To know about the changing pattern use of land all over the country.

3.3 CONCEPTS
In the chapter learner necessary to understand various basic concept
related to the topic. The main concepts in the topic are Land, Revenue,
Land revenue, Revenue Administration etc.
Land: Basically Land refers to all natural resources found on, under and
above the earth‘s surface such as soil, rivers, minerals, oceans and forest.
But as an individual it is the surface of earth w hich is used for many
purposes production and businesses.
Revenue: revenue includes all amounts of money (i.e., taxes and fees)
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Administration: ―Administration is the organization & direction of
human & material resources to achieve desired ends.‖ -Pfiffner&Presthus

―Administration is the direction, coordination an persons to achieve some
purposes or objectives. -L.D. White

Revenue Administration : Revenue Administration is an institutional
framework, to excel in their operational performance to receive taxes and
fees and related work.

Nevertheless, some key characteristics of an effective revenue
administration are generally recognized to be
(1) Sufficient legal authority to exercise its mandate in full;
(2) A well -defined and lean organizational structure;
(3) clear separation between the HQ -policy/planning level and the local
offices/operational level;
(4) Adequate administrative autonom y to implement its mandate
effectively and without unwarranted political influence;
(5) Skilled work force receiving appropriate remuneration and benefiting
from stable career paths;
(6) Adequate budget to finance its operational and capital needs.

Land Reforms: “ Land reform means replaces the old land holding system
by a new one, which is free from the exploitative features and help to
enhance the productivity of land.‖ -

3.4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF REVENUE ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA
Introduction:
The history of rural administration in India can be traced back to the
seventeenth century, when the voluntary efforts to provide service to the
human resources were initiated. In the Indian history to know the facts of
revenue structure and administration we could make three different
periods as far as ruling authority is concern. A) Ancient Indian Taxation
system . B) Revenue administration during the Mughal period . C)
Evolution of revenue administration during the British period.

3.5 ANCIENT INDIAN TAXATION SYSTEMS
Ancient India was self -sufficient as far as many things are concerned. In
ancient India there was prosperity and peace. Even at that time governance
system was efficient, which was knit design to welfare of the people. In
fact there was the rule of wisdom emanated from some treatises, authored
by some eminent saints and statesman. It is the notable thing that, well munotes.in

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plan financial structure for the emergence of the stable and prosperous
state, was visualized by ancient Indian political thinkers. The theory o f the
taxation system was immense importance from the constitutional point of
view. The taxes themself were regarded in Hindu politics as wages of the
King for the service of administration. As it is said, ―One sixth of
Bali(Taxing method) import and expor t duties, fine and forfeitures
collected from the offenders - gather in accordance with strata (law and
constitution) as your wages shall constitute revenue.

In ancient India there were few general principal of the taxation
system i.e.
1) In taxation the king should not by greediness destroy his own
foundations as well as those of other ( Mahabharata, XII. 87.18 )
2) Subjects may be taxed in a way that they may remain strong to bear
future burdens and if necessary, heavier ones.
3) It is not the heavily t axed realm which executes great deeds but the
moderately taxed one, whose ruler not sacrificing the power of
defence,manages administration economically. The subjects oppose
that the king who is extravagant in administration.
4) The great principle emphas ized is that taxation should not be such that
it may not be felt by the subject. The ruler should act like a bee which
collects honey without causing pain to the plant. It should not be in an
obnoxious way.
5) In raising taxes higher it should be done lit tle by little when the
realm's prosperity is increasing. The process must be mild so that the
realm might not turn restive
6) Taxes shown are levied in proper place, in proper time and in proper
form. They should never be realized by a painful mode.
7) In production of art materials used, cost incurred, maintenance of the
artist required for the producing the article and the condition of the
artist have to be taken into account.
9) Imports harmful to the state and luxuries are to be discouraged by
taxat ion.
10) Beneficial imports should be made free of import duties.
11) Those articles which are rare in the country and those which would be
seed for future production should be allowed in free.
12) Certain commodities should not be exported, while their imports are
to be encouraged by not being taxed at all. They were for instance,
weapons and armours,metals, military vehicles, rare things, grains and
cattle.

Above all principle related to the ancient taxation system indicates various
moral and progressi ve methods, which are useful even in today‘s scenario.
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3.6 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD.
The Mughal emperors exploited several sources of revenue. They levied
direct taxeson income and persons, profession and property. They made
money by extensive commercial undertakings of various kinds. They
raised substantial sums by indirect taxes such as customs duties, transit
dues, octroi, sales tax, and the excise duty on manufactures.
Administration of justice brought in a small sum in fines an d judicial fees.
The emperor was the heir to all property without proper title, ad salvages
from ship -wrecks were his. Registration fee was paid when transactions
were recorded or certain ceremonies performed. The emperors received
presents from their offi cers and subjects as also from foreign rulers
sending embassies to India. War often became a source of income;
indemnity was sometimes levied besides receipt: front plunder. Under
Babur and Humayun, and again under Aurangzeb, certain burdens were
shouldere d by non -Muslims, which can be best described as taxes on
religion. The Revenue administration under the first two Mughal rulers —
Babur and Humayun —continued to operate as it was under the Sultans
of Delhi. Babur was so much engrossed in the vari ous wars during his four
years of rule that he could hardly get any time to devote to the revenue
affairs.

Humayun , his successor, also found himself in trouble soon after his
accession to the throne and had to spend most of his life in exile.
Accordingly, he also did not get any chance to improve the revenue
administration.

It was Sher Shah Suri, who intervened between Humayun and Akbar,
who provided an excellent land revenue system. He has acquired good
knowledge of the working of the revenue system as Jagirdar of Sehsram,
Khawaspur and Tanda. When he became the emperor of India he tried to
introduce this system on a large scale. First of all he ordered the
measurement of the lands accor ding to a uniform standard.

Akbar, who succeeded Humayun was only a child a t the time of his acces -
sion. He first paid attention to the security and consolidation of the empire.
After he had entrenched himself on the throne he paid attention to the
revenue administration and made efforts to improve on the revenue system
set up by Sher Shah. In this he got the assistance from experts like
Muzaffar Khan, Itimad Khan and Raja Todar Mal.‖

First of all Akbar collected complete information about land and
reorganized the whole land revenue system. He introduced Zabti System
in eight provinces of his empire. Under this system the cultivable lands
were measured with the standard gaz known as Jarib which was an
improvement over the measurement methods adopted by Sher Shah.
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The officers were given strict instructions to, do the measuring work
honestly and not to accept any bribe from the cultivators.
After getting the lands measured he tried to ascertain the produce of the
land for the purpose of determining state‘s share of land revenue. For this
purpose the land was classified in four c ategories. Polaj was the first
category of land which was always in cultivation.

Throughout the season it had some crop ready according to the season.
The second category of land was Parauti , which had to be left fallow for
one or two years to recoup the fertility. Chachar was the third category of
land which had to be left out of cultivation for three or four years to gain
the fertility.

The fourth category of land was known as Banjar or barren land. It had to
be left fallow for five years or more. The fi rst two categories of lands were
further sub -divided into three types according to their fertility —good,
middling and bad. The produce of three grades of land was calculated and
their average was con sidered to be the actual produce of the land. The
state‘s share was fixed on the basis of this actual produce.

This share of the state was determined for the various cate gories of lands
on ‗the basis of the fertility of the soil and the produce of the last ten years.
The state share in respect of Polaj and Pa rauti, was fixed at one -third of
the average produce of the three gra des.

On the chachar land the state‘s share was 1/15 of the produce in the first
year, 2/15 in the second year, 1/5 in the third year, 1/ 4 the fourth year and
1/3 in the fifth year. Sim ilarly on the Banjar land the Government charged
1/26 of the produce in the first year, 1/13 in the second year, 2/13 in the
third year, 3/13 in the fourth year and 1/3 in the fifth year.

Though the state‘s share was fixed in kind, it was commuted into ca sh
according to the current prices. This practice was not proper and caused
much inconvenience to the cultivators. Therefore, later on Todar Mal fixed
the cash rati on the basis of the average of the last ten years.

In certain other parts of the empire ce rtain other systems of land revenue
also existed viz. GhallaBaksha, Nasaq etc. GhallaBaksha was the old
system of assessment by crop division and it worked in Thatta and certain
parts of Kabul and Kashmir.

According to this system the government took one -third of the total
produce after the harvest as its share. Under the Nasaq system a general
estimate of the expected yield of the standing crops was made and the state
claimed one -third of the expected yield.

The land revenue system adopted by Akbar has b een greatly admired by
scholars. According to V.A.‘ Smith the land revenue system of Akbar was
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from time to time to keep the system up -to- date. But one ‗cannot help
feeling consider able scepticism concerning the conformity of practice with
precept.‖

He further opines that TodarMal‘s system was devised to prevent the State
from being defrauded rather than to protect the interests of the rayot. In
fact there is no specific instance ci ted by V.A. Smith to prove that the
system operated to the detriment of the rayot.

On the other hand, on the testimony of Abul -Fazl in Ain -i-Akbari it can be
said that the land revenue system of Akbar was highly efficient and the
peasants were ‗quite happ y. The state demand being fixed, there was very
little scope for extracting more from the peasants than was due.

The officers were usually honest. Exactions and extortions, if brought to
notice, were severely punished. In case of drought or excessive rains, the
land revenue was often remitted; the needy peasants were given loans by
the Government.

The land revenue system introduced by Akbar continued throughout the
Mughal period with more or less no change. The system appears to have
worked very satis factorily. It is evident from the fact that the land revenue
under Babur stood at Rs. 2.60 crores, in Akbar‘s time it stood at Rs. 17.50
crores. In Jahangir‘s time at 17.60 crores and under Shah Jahan it was
21.15 crores. Under Aurangzeb it rose to 29.77 c rores.

Though the land revenue was the chief source of state revenue, it resorted
to certain other taxes to supplement its income. These included toll tax,
customs, mints, presents which the king received from the Governors and
Ministers as well as Jahang irdars on important occasions; fines which the
state levied on the criminals.

Another source of income was indemnity from vanquished or defeated
ruler. This indemnity was paid either once or regularly as a token of
subordination to the emperor.

It will t hus be observed that the Revenue .administration during the
medieval times underwent many improvements and the revenue of the
state continued to grow. It may be noted that the fiscal resources of that
state at that time were very limited. But as the state did not undertake any
welfare activities, its expenditure was also very limited.
Most of the revenue collected by the state was spent on the wars and
personal luxuries of the rulers. For example Aurangzeb, who inherited an
overflowing treasury from his fat her, squandered huge amounts in his
Deccan wars and ultimately left an almost depleted treasury for his
successors. He even resorted to the much hated Jaziya, to find additional
funds for meeting the expenses of these wars.

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3.7 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM OF THE MARATHAS
Shivaji's kingdom consisted of territories he wrested from the Sultans of
Ahmadnagar and Bijapur and from the emperor of Delhi. The southern
districts bore the mark of Vjayanagar rule. Thus the revenue systems of
four different States were preva lentin Maharashtra. Shivaji tried to bring
financial unity by establishing one common method for collection of
revenue. The people of Maharashtra had suffered much from the wars
between the Nizamshahi rules and the Mughals. Large tracts of land were
lying desolate and agriculture and trade had declined. If these districts
were again to be brought back to life and prosperity, they had to be
assured of peace and prosperity and the demand of peasant proprietor had
to be a fixed one, settled on easy terms. Shiv aji revived the principles of
Malik Amar's revenue system. The Kathi or the measuring rod was to be
five cubits and five fists in length. Twenty Kathi square made a bigha and
120 bighas one Chawar. The first important step taken by Shivaji was to
survey the land and then to assess the rent and other dues payable by the
cultivators. These surveys were made at different times. The first was
made by DadajiKondadeo in Sdhahji'sjagir at Poona; the second one was
begun by Moro Pant Pingle; and the last one was carried out by
AnnajiDatto which really covered most of the Maratha districts. The main
features of Ambar's system accepted by Shivaji were:
i) The classification of land according to fertility;
ii) Ascertainment of their produce,
iii) Fixing the governmen t share,
iv) Collection of rents either in kind or cash; and foodgrain .
v) Abolition of the intermediate collecting agents as farmers of revenue.

3.8 EVOLUTION OF REVENUE ADMINISTRATION DURING THE BRITISH PERIOD
Land revenue was the most important aspect for the British government in
India. They needed resources to run their administration. Therefore, they
devoted great attention to the task of administration and re -organisation of
land revenue system. In 1793, Cornwallis introduced the Zamindari
System (Permanent Land Revenue Settlement) , which created landed
aristocracy for the first time in India. Secondly, this system put the tenants
into a very insecure position. Though the' Government had fixed its share
in perpetuity, they were given full freedom in exacting from the tenants as
much as they liked. It not only impoverished the peasantry but also
deprived them of their land. It proved so defective that the British did not
extend this system outside the Bengal region. In the southern and some
parts of N orthern India, the Ryotwari s ystem was adopted. It established a
direct relation between the landholder and the government. Here also they
conformed proprietary rights upon the landholders. It was a new system.
Earlier, the land belonged to village communi ties and the joint families.
The individual had no share of his own. This land settlement brought munotes.in

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about a radical change in the rural areas. The government of Lord William
Bentinck, Governor -General of India (1828 to 1835) introduced the
Mahalwari system of land revenue in 1833. This system was introduced in
North -West Frontier, Agra, Central Province, Gangetic Valley, Punjab,
etc. This had elements of both the Zamindari and the Ryotwari systems .

Permanent Settlement:
Lord Cornwallis sought to bring abou t stability in the agricultural
economy. He tried, first, to bring continuity by making decennial (i.e. ten
years) settlement in place of annual settlement. In March, 1793, he
introduced the concept of 'Permanent Settlement'. According to
RomeshDutt, 'if t he prosperity and happiness of a nation be the criterion of
wisdom and success; Lord Cornwallis' permanent settlement of 1793 is the
wisest and most successful measure which the British nation has ever.

Revenue policy of the British and its consequences:
 Land became a commodity.
 Earlier there was no private ownership of land. Even kings and
cultivators did not consider land as his ‗private property‘.
 Due to the very high taxes, farmers resorted to growing cash crops
instead of food crops. This led to food insecurity and even famines.
 Taxes on agricultural produce were moderate during pre -British times.
The British made it very high.
 Insistence on cash payment of revenue led to more indebtedness among
farmers. Moneylenders became landowners in due course.
 Bonded labour arose because loans were given to farmers/labourers
who could not pay it back.
 When India achieved freedom from colonial rule, 7% of the villagers
(Zamindars/landowners) owned 75% of the agricultural land.

3.9 SCOPE OF REVENUE ADMINISTRATION.
Introduction:
Revenue administration is a major point of contact between government
and the people. Good revenue administration thus becomes an important
feature of good governance. Today‘s Indian revenue system has
influenced by many factors related to h istory since ancient time. As far as
scope of the revenue field is concern we have to highlight following things
to find out good changes in Indian farmer‘s point of view.

Land revenue administration post-independence period in India.

Before the discussion on the administration process it is necessary to
agree the some fact regarding some positive changes in the colonial
period. The British thus inherited a well laid out land records system from
the Mughals. They, however, made drastic changes with a view to further, munotes.in

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improve the land revenue system and augment the revenue as this
constituted the main source of State income .

In order to realize the above stated objective, a number of land reform
legislations have been enacted and impleme nted by the state governments.
Brief reviews of these reforms are given below.

1. Abolition of the Zamindari and other forms of intermediary
tenures.
The intermediary tenure was known by different names like the Zamindar
Jahangirdar Mirasdar Inamdar etc. it existed on the large scale in UP Bihar
madras west Bengal MP Hyderabad and Telangana regions of Andhra
Pradesh and Saurashtra region of Gujarat.

In the post -independence. The state government have enacted legislations
by watch the intermediary tenures were abolished. The state governments
had purchased land belongings to the intermediator‘s. The intermediator
were given limited right of resumptions of land for personal cultivation.
the limits on the land that may be retained by intermediator‘s were laid
down by some of these States like Assam.

The Zamindari abolition enactment provides for being a reasonable
compensation to the intermediator‘s for the land purchase from them. The
basis for and rates of compensation have been different in different state s
in Bihar West Bengal an MP mate income from the land was the criteria to
determine the amount of compensation payable to the intermediator's in
most other states a sliding scale of a fixed multiple of the income has been
adopted this multiple is very low for the large land owners Anne relatively
higher for these small land owners. The payment of compensation is based
on the principle of social justice the government paid rehabilitation grants
to the extinct intermediate‘s particularly to the small land ow ners. The
total liability of the state for paying the compensation and rehabilitation
grants was above was about 670 crore rupees. The part amount was paid in
cash and part was in the form of transferable government bonds carrying
interest between 2 to 3% these bonds were to be encased in equal
instalments spread over a period to 22 to 40 years.

The System of intermediary tenure has been legally abolished by 1963.
The abolition of intermediaries has not been an unmixed blessing. While
some consequences have been desirable, there have been some
unsatisfactory consequences as well. These consequences are as follows.
1. The positive outcome of these legislations has been that the class of
those who used to live on others efforts been that the class of thos e
who used to live on others effort has been abolished. The parasite
class has ceased to exit.
2. Many cultivators tilling the land have become the owners of land. It is
estimated that about 60 Lac dealers have been benefited by the
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3. The abolition of intermediaries has proved beneficial from the point
of increasing production as well as in realizing the objective of social
economic justice. It has also raised social status and economic
wellbeing of farmers.
4. The government could acquire sizable areas of cultivable Waste land
and private forest. These have been distributed among landless
workers thereby contributing to their wellbeing.
5. The income from land revenue has appreciably increase from ₹48,
00,00,000 in 1951 -52 to 99,00,00,000 in 1970 -78.
6. Although Zamindari abolition legislations abolished intermediaries,
still they created a class of absentee landlords. There are the owners of
land who do not cultivate and but give it to tillers on rent. The
absence of pr ovision that on cultivating for person is not entitled to
become owner of land had disastrous consequences in some state like
Utter Pradesh. These intermediaries although seized to collect land
revenue for themselves. Thus majority of intermediaries become
agriculturist with special rights. According to economists the most
disastrous consequences of this legislation has been burden on
budgetary process on the count of heavy amount to be paid as
compensation.

2) Tenancy reforms: There were also a number of land owners in India,
particularly in Rayotwary areas of Bombay, MP, Madras, who themselves
cultivated a part of land rented rest of the land to the tenants. The system
did not provide any incentive to the tenants and subtenants in order to
safeguard, the interests of the tenants, state governments enacted the
tenancy legislations. The features of the tenancy legislations are as
follows;

A) Security of tenure: the fixation of reasonable rents is meaningless if it
is not accompanied by security of tenure th e tenants should not be victims
of the land owners. Security of tenure encourages cultivators to bring
about improvement in their land enjoy the rewards of the improvements.

B) Right to resumption: several tenancy legislations have provided the
right of r esumption that is the owners of the land may resume their land
from the tenants if they desire to cultivate the land personally.

C) Ownership for Tenants: The basic principle of the tenancy has been
land to tiller several legislations provide that the ten ant should be
encouraged to purchase the land. Land was purchased by the government
from their erstwhile owners and range to sell the same to the tenants.
Some states have provided for direct purchase of land by the tenants from
the owners. The facility of payment in instalments is universally provided.
The tendency reforms have been conceived in the right direction. The rate
of progress varies from state to state. The provisions regarding the various
aspects such as right to resumption, security to tenure, etc. differ from
state to state. The basic philosophy has been grasped but that has been munotes.in

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faulty. In spite of these limitations, it is estimated that 153.23 lac acre
lands was acquired and ownership rights were conferred on 112.13 Lac
cultivators till 1993 to 1994.

3) Ceiling on Holding: India is a land of paradoxes. There is
anundesirable disparity in socio -economic and political environment.
Therefore, an important constituent of land reforms relates to the fixation
of an upper limit on holding of land by an individual cultivator. The
ceiling on holding implies two things viz., fixation of ceiling above which
holder cannot hold land and distribute the surplus land among the small
farmers, and land lease labourer. Thus, It is a two way process, to reduce
the size of landholding of big lan dlords, and increase the size holding of
some all farmers. The important features of land ceiling legislations are
as follows.

A) Unit of application : to start with, the basic unit of fixation of ceiling
was an individual and as a consequence families came to possess large
areas of land. However, at present the unit of fixing the ceiling is the
family. The family consists of a husband wife and children.

B) Maximum limit : the higher limit on the holding of a unit varies from
state to state will stop aga in variation and the lower and higher limit of
ceiling on landholding vary considerably. For example in Maharashtra it
ranges between 18 and 126 acres. However progressively the upper limit
has been lowered and the difference between the lowest and the hig her
limits have also been narrowed considerably. In Bengali uniform level of
25 acres irrespective of quality of land has been prescribed. In
Maharashtra the level of ceiling varies according to their quality of land
that is one acre permanently irrigated land is equal to, two acres of other
land and ceiling at 27 and 54 acres respectively as prescribed.

C) Exemptions : different laws were enacted in different states regarding
exemption from the application of ceiling legislations. The UP legislation
grante d twenty types of exemptions. In Maharashtra the number was 17.
Among the types of land exempt were orchids, grazing lands, sugar cane
fields off you go factories cooperative farms, mechanized farms etc. the
important consideration in the grant of exemptio n was the agricultural
productivity should not suffer.

D) Surplus land and its distribution : The land in access to the ceiling
level is purchased by the state governments. The estimated Surplus Was
73.52 Lac acres out of which 64.16 like acres have been a cquired by state
and 50.49 black acres have been distributed among 48 point 81 Lac
beneficiaries, of these 35.94% belong to SC and 14.20% belong to ST.

E) Repayment : it is the problem of recovery of cost of land from the
allottes. The cultivators are giv en facility of payment by instalment. Apart
from the price of the land they are required to pay land revenue. The
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the allots should not be more than 1/5 of the gross product

4) Consolidat ion of Holdings : As already discussed Indian agriculture
suffers from the problem of sub division and fragmentation and as a
consequence the holdings of a large majority of farmers are economically
not viable. It has been suggested that the size of holding s should be
increased by bringing together small add joining plots to make them
suitable for operational efficiency.

There is overall scarcity of cultivable land in India. Therefore going outbig
tracts of land for cultivation is out of question. The solut ion to the problem
lies in consolidating fragmented holdings. The owner of several scattered
pieces could be given one piece of land in one place equivalent to all his
pieces. The consolidation could also be done by either treating an entire
village as a b lock and each village will be given land as per share or by
mutual exchange among the land owners. The consideration can also be
bought by farming cooperatives of the cultivators wherever the entire plot
is cultivated with efforts of all concern and produc e to be divided in the
proportionate manner. Most of the states have enacted legislations in this
regard in a number of states like Gujarat. The consolidation is voluntary
whereas in several other states like Punjab it is compulsory. It was
estimated that 615.66 Lac hectors of and has been consolidated by the end
of the year 1993 to 1994.

5) Reorganization of Agrarian Sector: A number of legislations
encourage reorganizations of agrarian sector through cooperative farming
will stop the farmers pooled their individual plots and cultivate the farm in
the spirit of cooperative farm employees the farmers as labourers and pay
them wages. The farmers also get a share in the profit made by the
cooperative farm paid in proportion to the value of land contributed.

The idea of cooperative farming for India was advocated by imperial
council of agricultural research in 1944. Congress agrarian reforms
committee of 1949 also recommended cooperative farming. The first plan
also provided that cooperative village management should be the goal of
the rural economy. This viewpoint was reemphasized in the second five
year plan. The All India Congress committee at its Nagpur session in 1959
advocated cooperative farming. Government of India set up Lingappa
Committee in 1960 whic h recommended setting up of 300 pilot projects,
each project having 10 cooperative farming societies. The third plan
included the target of formation of 10,000 cooperative farming has been
progressively expanded. The integrated ruler development program
introduced in 1976 -77, was to assist marginal farmers, sharecroppers and
landless agricultural workers to come together in forming cooperative
societies. Therefore it was added by allotting ceiling surplus land to them
by the state governments.

The prospect for success of cooperative farming is encouraging though it
has still taken from roots. The program is still in infancy, but the munotes.in

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programmer has demonstrated its capacity to increase agricultural
production. The success of the program depends on non -offici al has been
noticed that wherever such leadership existed the program was successful.
In terms of the twin objectives of economic development and social
injustice the program of land reforms have been launched in the right
direction. In course of time impr ovements by modifications in the policy
have been brought about. Still there are a number of inherent defects on
account of which the land reforms have not been as successful as they
should have been. Some limitations of land ceiling legislations are as
follows.
1 The contents of laws contradict the slogan on the land to the tiller for
example although intermediaries Have been abolished it has not been
made obligatory that land should belong only to those who cultivate.
As a consequence land has gone to non -agriculturist who has hardly
any interest in cultivation.
2 The loss contains so many exemptions and allows flexibility to states
that the objective of putting the entire agricultural land within the
orbit of land reform has been defeated.
3 The wording of the clauses is so clumsy that it can be interpreted as
one wants to interpret it several litigations have occurred which has
hindered the implementation of the laws. The laws have not been
flouted, but the way clauses have been used to negate the very
objectiv es of the land reforms.
4 The most unfortunate part of the land reforms has been faulty and
delayed implementation. Time was allowed to lapse between the
announcement of policy and enactment of laws will stop as a result
sizeable land was taken out of the ap plication of new laws will stop
again arrangements for the implementation of laws were not only
properly made but because of defective laws and their improper
implementation there was ejectment of cultivators on a large scale.
5 State level politics, the big farmers lobby strong in the ruling party is
not prepared to displease them. Again owing to electricity, lower
degree of political con poverty, the downtrodden sections in the
village are not in to resist the arbitrary actions of big farmers. Of late
the r esistance has led to conflicts between the vested interests and
downtrodden section.

3.10 DETERMINANTS OF LAND REVENUE
Since ancient time we are getting to see that there is gradual development
in the determinants of public taxation system. Mainly method of taxation is
related to following factors which need to be considering all time for the
better taxation system.
1. Fair Taxation System: As per the Adam Smith‘s opinion, taxation
must ensure justice. The burden of taxation must be distributed equitably
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people should bear a heavier burden of tax and poor lesser burden. Hence,
tax system should contain progressive tax rates based on the taxpayer‘s
ability to pay. In the context of la nd revenue we witnessed that the
incident of taxation is higher on the rich farmers and that the poor tribal
farmers have been exempted from the payment of the land revenue. We
may also note that the incident of land revenue was not reasonable prior to
independence. The land revenue parable rented between 20 to 33%.
However the rate of land revenue progressively increases during the
British rule, and it was as high as 52% in 1897.These types of coercive
method of tax collection and other harsh rules was one kind of
imprisonment for the Indian peasants. However, Conon of equity need to
see the socio -economic justice to the cultivators as per the Adam Smith‘s
point of view.

2. Certainty : Taxation must have an element of certainty. As per the
Adam Smith‘s opin ion ―the tax, which each individual is bound to pay
ought to be certain and not arbitrary. The time of payment, the manner of
payment, or the amount to be paid, must be clear and plain to the
contributor and the every other person.‖

The certainty aspects of taxations are:
1. Certainty of liability as to how much shall be the tax amount payable
in a particular period.
2. Certainty of effective incidence that who shall bear the tax burden?
3. Certainty of revenue that is the government should be certain about
the estimated collection of revenue from a given tax levied.
4. The rates of land revenue payable by the farmers are predetermined.

3. Economy: The principle suggests that the cost of collecting a tax should
not be exorbitant but the minimum. Extravagant tax collection machinery
is not justified. According to Adam Smith‘s every tax has to be contrived
as both take out and keep out of the pockets of the people as little as
possible and about what is brings into the public treasure of the state. The
revenue machinery collects Land revenue as well as performs other
administrative duties.

4. Convenience : According to this Canon, tax should be collec ted in a
convenient manner from the taxpayer. Adam Smith stress out that every
tax ought to be levied at the time or in the manner in which it is most
likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it.

5. Productivity: Productivity connotes that tax s hould be productive that
is they should bring sufficient revenue to the state. A tax which does not
bring any sizable revenue is meaningless. The Exchequer judges the merits
of tax by amount of its yield. The excessive incident off land revenue may
brought ample revenue to the government but it discouraged the Indian
peasantry and lead to the declining agricultural productivity.
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6. Expediency: Expediency means that, tax should be determined on the
ground of its economic, social and political advisability. For the instance,
a tax on agriculture income lacks social, political or administrative
expediency in India and that is why the Government of India has seized to
impose tax on agricultural income.

Besides these connote of taxation, other specific factor n eed to consider
for the determining land revenue are as follows.
I) Size of land holdings : The landholding is of different size. A big land
owner has more than 25 acres of land whereas, small farmer has a less
than 2.5 acres. The medium and big land owners ar e charged at the
concessional rate as far as land revenue is concern. The minor tribal
farmers are fully exempted from the payment of land revenue.
II) Quality of land: There are fertile and less fertile lands. The incident
of land revenue is higher for fertil e land and lowers for the less fertile
land; no land revenue is charge and follows on barren land.
III) Provision of Irrigation : The agricultural land in India is classified as
irrigated and dry land. About 65% agriculture land fallen in rain fed,
and due to th e non -availability of means of irrigation. Only 30%
under irrigated land has assured water stability and its use for the
cultivation of cash crop. Hence irrigated land has higher incident of
land revenue than dry land.
IV) Non-agricultural land: The government own non -agricultural land is
leased out for sanctuary, forestry and such other purposes to private
individuals and institutions. The land revenue for the lease lands is
change at the higher rate.
V) Special categorylandholder s: belonging to the scheduled caste and
the scheduled tribes are given concession in revenue, similarly for the
freedom fighters and soldiers are exempted. Temples and other places
of worship exempted from the payment of land revenue

3.11 SUMMARY
In this unit attempts have been made to acquaint you, with the concept of
land revenue and land revenue administration that existed during ancient,
medieval and colonial period. This unit will further familiarise you with
various changes related to land revenue assessment and administration in
different regimes. Thus, this unit will provide you a comprehensive
understanding of pre -independent as well few immediate changes after
India‘s independence. In the below given table you will acquaints with
new and local words.




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3.12 KEYWORDS Bhaga :type of tax on agriculture. Khalsaareas ;areas directly administered by the state Bhog :cesses Patwari :a state employee at the village level responsible for recording the areas under various crops Zabtkabti :System of assessment based on measurement Doab :land between Ganga and Yamuna rivers Kankzlt :estimation of land revenue Polaj :Fertile Land ( 1st Quality) Parauti :Semi fertile land ( 2nd Quality) Chachar : Barren Land (Banger )
3.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS:
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by revenue administration?
2. Describe the land revenue collection system during the Mughal
period.
3. Describe changes the land revenue system during the British rule.
4. What were the three kinds of land settlement during British rule in India?
5. What is Jizya

MCQs

i) The zamindari system was introduced by …….
A. Lord Cornwallis,
B. Lord Wellesley.
C. Warren Hastings,
D. Dalhousie

ii) Where the Permanent Settlement was firstly introduced?
A. Orissa (Odessa) and Bengal
B. Orissa (Odessa) and Andhra Pradesh
C. Bengal and Bihar
D. Orissa (Odessa) and Bihar.

iii) Who among the following introduced Ryotwari System in India?
A. Lord Cornwallis
B. Thomas Munro
C. Warren Hasting
D. Lord Wellesley
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iv) Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during the period
of_________________.
A. William Bentinck
B. Thomas Munro
C. Warren Hasting
D. Lord Wellesley

v) Jizya was abolished by the _______.Mughal ruler
A. Akbar
B. Aurangzeb
C. Shajan.
D. Shah -Alam.

3.14 REFERENCES
* District Administration and Rural Development in India: Policy
Objectives and Administrative Change in Historical Perspective, B.
B. Mishra.
* Raychoudhary S.C. (2005), Social, Cultural and Economic History
of India (Ancient Times), Surjeet Publications, Delhi.
* Raychoudhary S.C. (2005), Social, Cultural and Econo mic History
of India(Medieval Age), Surjeet Publications, Delhi.
* District Administration in India : Problems and Prospects R. D.
Sharma H.K.Publishers and Distributors, 1990.


*****
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4

REVENUE ADMINISTRATIONS IN INDIA
(Part -II)

Unit Structure
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Objectives Of The Lesson
4.3. Components Of Revenue Administration
4.4. Functions Of Revenue Administration
4.5. Revenue Administration Machinery
4.6. Allied Units Of Revenue Administration
4.7. Summary
4.8. Keywords
4.9. Unit End Questions
4.10. References

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Revenue administration has always dominated the Indian administration. It
is generally understood that the revenue department means the collection
of land revenue. But the department of revenue besides those, other
innumerable functions also asked to do. In this chapter we are going to see
various functions, components, reven ue machinery as well as revenue
allied activities, which are related to public rights and welfare.

4.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON.
 To know the various components of revenue administration.
 To understand the functions of revenue administration.
 Acquire the knowledge of revenue administration machinery.
 To know the allied units of revenue administration.

4.3 COMPONENTS OF REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
Revenue administration is divided into four separate departments which
are as mentioned below:

I. Recovery of Revenue:
There is no single person of the state who is not coming in contact with
this department. It is because besides usual revenue recovery work this
department is performing so many other services to the people for example munotes.in

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issue of ration cards, issue of cast certificate and election duties etc. There
are thousands of Revenue Officers working for this department. There top
to bottom order is as mentioned below:
1. Revenue Minister
2. Secretary, Addl. Secretary Asst. Secretary etc.
3. Divisional Comm issioners
4. Collectors
5. Sub- Divisional Officers
6. Tahasildars/NaibTahasildars
7. Circle Inspectors/Circle Officers
8. Talathis/Patwaris
9. Kotwals

II) Measuring of Lands:
This department is commonly known as Survey Department. This
department is measuring land, fixing boundaries of holdings, settling
assessment of the agricultural land. They determine boundaries of villages,
cities and towns and fixes boundary marks. They also keep land records.
Top to bottom order o f Revenue Officers of this department is as
mentioned below:
1. Revenue Minister
2. Secretary
3. Settlement Commissioner
4. Director of Land Records
5. Dy. Director of Land Records
6. Superintendent of Land Records
7. District Inspector of Land Records
8. Taluka Inspector of land Records
9. Surveyor or Survey Tahasildar
10. Land Measurer

III) The registration of land alienations:
The transfer of land is legal and valid if the same is registered as per
provisions of Transfer of Property Act, and the Indian Registration Act,
1908. The land transfers are registered with the Sub -Registrar who is
having his office in each Taluka.

IV) Treasury:
The land revenue was the main source of income of the state. Therefore it
was necessary to have treasury department o n Taluka level to deposit the
amount collected by revenue officers. During the course of time the
control of treasury was taken over by finance department and since then
this department seized to be part of revenue department. However it is
duty of collect or to visit and inspect this department as he is the head of
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4.4 FUNCTIONS OF REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
Functions of revenue administration are mainly linked with land revenue
landholding and implementation of land reforms. The following activities
undertaken by the revenue administration.

4.4.1 Assessment and collection of land revenue :
The government determines the land revenue policy and the rates at When
the land revenue payable by the different categories. The functionaries of
revenue administration maintain the record of land holdings as well as that
agricultural production of each of the land holders. They undertake
assessment of the land revenue Babel by even landholder and collect this
same. The office of the district collector game into existence for this
purpose in 1772. The revenue machinery collect not only land revenue but
also other dues fable 2 the government. It also initiates Caesar operation in
the event of the failure of land owner/ Butters others to make payment of
land revenues /other news due to the government.
Thousands of Indian farmers were oriented of their land dur ing the British
due to their failure to pay land revenue to the government.

4.4.2. Survey and measurement of land :
The revenue department keeps up to date the maps of villages by
Undertaking Saturdays and measurements and demarcation of land of the
indiv idual land owners on demand and payment of the required fees.

4.4.3. Maintenance of land record:
This system of maintaining land records was evolved during the British
period. The village functionary maintains record of land holdings at every
individual landholder as Well as Guns action of sale and purchase by
updating record. Be copies of land record are made available to the
concern individuals on the payment of the prescribed fees.

4.4.4. Government treasury:
The government treasury is the place wher e the most amount collected by
the functionaries update department as land revenue, other news and fees
is deposited. The treasury is situated in the premises of the office of the
district collector. All transactions regarding the governmental receipts and
payments are conducted in the treasury branch of the State Bank of India.

4.4.5. Land acquisition:
There is a need to acquire land for the development of roads, bridges
industrial area airports, government offices and other public purposes. The
land acq uisition officer is entrusted this responsibility. The Gorman makes
payment of compensation to those whose lands are acquired put stop.

4.5 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION MACHINERY
Though the revenue bureaucracy has occupied a premier position in the munotes.in

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administra tion set -up of the country - under any dynasty even in history. In
present day the department has not suffered any loss in respect of its
power and position. There are several factors which are responsible for the
dominance of the revenue bureaucracy in rur al administration.

Divisional Commissioner :
In the revenue matters Divisional Commissioner is the Chief Controlling
Authority under the superintendence, direction and control of the State
Government. All the powers in respect of revenue matters are delegated to
the Divisional Commissioner .

Collector :
The Collector occupies a central place in the district administration. He is
the head of the Revenue administration in the district and acts as the co -
ordinating officer among all the officers of the Go vernment in the district.
He plays a pivotal role in the administration of the district.
The collector is empowered to convert use of land from one purpose to
another purpose.

Duties & Rights of Collector:
1. The collector is responsible in respect of (1) fixation, (2) collection
and (3) accounting of the land revenue of the lands which are liable to
payment of land revenue.
2. The Collector is also responsible for the collection of fees and taxes
under various other Acts such as the Indian Stamp Act, the Indi an
Court Fees Act, the Bombay Entertainment Duty Act, the Sales Tax
Act, the Bombay Village Panchayats Act, etc. Thus the collector and
his establishment have to undertake the recovery of such dues when
neces sary as arrears of land revenue under the provi sions of various
Acts.
3. In regard to the administration of the Indian Forests Act, the ultimate
responsibility for the administration of the Forest department, so far as
his district is concerned, lies with him and the Divisional Forests
Officer is his assi stant for the purpose except in matters relating to the
technique of forestry.
4. The administration and implementation of the various land tenure
abolition Acts including the Bombay Tenancy and Agricultural Lands
Act, 1948 and the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands (Ceiling on Hold -
ings) Act, 1961, rests with the Collector. He is also an appellate
authority to hear appeals under various sections of these Acts.
5. According to the Maharashtra Agricultural Lands (Ceiling on Hold -
ings) Act, 1961, a particular ceiling limit has been fixed in the district.
Thus the excess land has to be taken over by Government by paying
compensation and the disposal of such surplus land has to be made by
the Collector.
6. He is empowered to award compensation under the Land Acquisition
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to the Special Land Acquisition Officers he exercises the control over
such officers and also takes review of the work done by them.
7. As a District Registrar, the Collector controls the admi nistration of the
registration department in the district.
8. Collector also acts as the District Magistrate in case of maintenance of
Law and Order and General Administration, as District Election
Officer in case of conduct of Election.
9. Collector plays a ke y role during natural disaster period like flood,
earthquake, landslide, and cyclone/storm damage or fire incidence. He
generally takes prompt action whenever situation arises in any part of
the district, and provides assistance either in cash or kind to t he
victims according to the nature of damage.
10. The Collector is assisted by number of officers at the headquarters.

Resident Deputy Collector:
The Resident Deputy Collector is appointed to relive the Collector of his
ordinary routine duties. In the absence of collector he is to look after
important urgent work and to see that work of collector goes on smoothly.
He has to co -ordinate the work of District offices with that of sub -ordinate
offices functioning at Taluka levels and Sub -Divisional levels.

Sub-Divisional Officer:
Officer in charge of Sub -Division is called Sub -Divisional Officer or Dy.
Collector or Asst. Collector. In revenue matter he acts as coordinator in
between Tahasildars of his Sub -Division and the District Collector. The
Sub divisi onal Offices are a replica of Collectorate in the matter of number
of sections. The Sub -Divisional Officer is the first appellate authority in
respect of revenue matters handled by his subordinates Sub Divisional
Officer is also the Sub Divisional Magistrate having jurisdiction over his
division.

The Sub -Divisional Officer is also the Returning Officer for Assembly
constituencies and he is the Asst. Returning Officer for the Parliamentary
Constituency in his sub -division.

Tahsildars and NaibTahsi ldars :
The officer in -charge of a tahsil is called Tahsildar. Tahsildar has powers
of co -ordination and distribution of work among Circle Revenue Officers,
The Tahsildars and Naib -Tahsildars are responsible for collection of land
revenue and other dues pay able to the Government. They remain in touch
with the subordinate revenue staff. They observe the seasonal conditions
and condition of crops. They listen to the difficulties of the cultivators.
The Tahasildar and Naib -Tahasildars extensively tour the areas in their
jurisdiction. They decide urgent matters on the spot, like correction of
entries in the account books, providing relief to the people faced with
natural calamities, etc. They also sit in the courts to settle disputes in
connection with Land Refor mation Acts, entries in account books, etc.
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Any application regarding land revenue is to be addressed to the
Tahasildar. Tahasildar takes decision on the application after due enquiry.
For elections to the VidhanSabha, a Tahsildar is, invariably be appoi nted
as Assistant Returning Officer for the constituency/constituencies falling
in his Tahsil.

They hold the powers of Executive Magistrate.

Circle Inspector/Officer :
Circle Inspector is village level Revenue Officer working under Tahasildar
and NaibTahasildar. The Circle Officer and the Circle Inspector in charge
of a circle shall exercise such powers over the Talathi in his circle and
perform such duties and functions as may from time to time be prescribed.
Duties and function of Circle Inspecto r/Officer are specified
in Maharashtra Land Revenue Circle Officer's and Circle Inspector's
(Duties and Functions) Rules, 1970.

Talathis/Patwaris :
Whereas, the collector is regarded as the pivot of the district
administration, the Talathi is the representative of Government at the
village level. He has usually one to five villages in his charge. His local
knowledge is so extensive that there is hardly any informa tion about the
village and its occupants of which he is not aware or of which he cannot
make a guess. As such, he is viewed as the eyes and ears of the Collector.
The duties of the Talathi includes field inspections, recording of crops,
revision reports re lating to mutations, partitions, recovery of revenue or
rents, and all amounts recoverable as arrears of land revenue, preparations
and maintenance of the "Records of Rights". He is also required to assist
in providing relief to agriculturists in distress or in census operations. It is
also the duty of a Talathi to prepare, whenever called upon by any superior
revenue or police officer of the taluka or district to do so all writings
connected with the concerns of a village which are required either for the
use of the Central or State Government or the public, such as notices,
reports of inquests, and depositions and examinations in criminal matters.
Duties and function of Talathis are specified in various sections of the
code and the rules thereunder. Some o f the sections and rules are as
follows: -

Under Section 44 Sub -Section (4) The person to whom (Non Agricultural)
permission is granted or deemed to have been granted has to inform the
Tahsildar in writing through the village officers (Talathi) the date on
which the change of user of land commenced. Talathi has to inform to
Tahsildar, the change of use of land within three days on receipt of
information received to him by person concerned.

Duties of Talathis/Patwaris :
1. The Talathi shall immediately after 1s tAugust submit to the Tahsil all
the information required for the compilation of the annual
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measured for being forwarded to The District Inspector of Land
Records for arranging the measur ement.
2. The Talathi shall, side by side or soon thereafter, watch the character
of the season and be ready to report distress that may be coming, by
submitting weekly rainfall and crop position reports to the Tahsildar
with copy to the Circle Inspector.
3. The Talathi shall commence at the same time the Kharif crop tenancy
and boundary and survey marks inspection and shall complete it t 15th
of October.
4. The Talathi shall thereafter commence and complete by 31st
December the Rabi crop and tenancy and boundary an d survey marks
inspection.
5. The Talathi shall assist the Circle Inspector in the preparation of
annewaris of crops and performance of as many crops cutting
experiments as may be required.
6. By15th of December or earlier as crop position may warrant, the
Talat hi shall obtain Collector‘s orders about the recovery of land
revenue of the current year as also of the suspended land revenue of
previous years. He shall give wide publicity to the Collector‘s orders
regarding suspension of land revenue and their recover y and
remissions.
7. By the end of December every year, .the Talathi shall bring Village
Form VIII -A up -to-date and keep the demand part of Village Form
VIII- ready to start land revenue recovery.
8. The Talathi shall recover land revenue ordered on the dates pr escribed
by the Collector under the rules.
9. The Talathi shall bear in mind that all the land revenue due for,
recovery for the year, shall be recovered before 31st July of the year
and no unauthorised arrears shall remain unrecovered.
10. The Talathi shall issue a receipt for all moneys received by him on
behalf of Government. For failure to give receipt the Talathi is liable
to a fine not exceeding twice the amount received, vide section 77 of
the Maharashtra Land Revenue Code, 1966. He shall maintain a
register showing the account of receipt books with him.
11. The Talathi shall maintain a cash book and exhibit in it all the moneys
he receives, credits into the treasury within 15 days. He shall at no
time hold as balance in hand an amount of more than Rs. 1,000 .
12. The Talathi shall report to the Tahsildar the progress of recovery of
land revenue in the chalan under which he credits land revenue
recovered in Government treasury.
13. The Talathi shall submit to the Tahsildar all his revenue accounts for
audit (Jamabandi) as soon as he recovers all the dues of the year. This
shall include the submission of abstract of Village Form VIII -B which
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14. The Talathi shall prove to the satisfaction of the Tahsildar that the
accounts maintaine d by him for the year are correct and in. agreement
with the Taluka Accounts where necessary.
15. The Talathi shall maintain all the revenue accounts and cash books,
charge reports and other records, as prescribed under the Maharashtra
Land Revenue Code and Ru les thereunder or any other law for the
time being in force or by order of the State Government or as
determined by the Collector subject to the general orders of the State
Government and the Commissioner.
16. The Talathi shall be responsible for the collectio n of arrears of land
revenue and all amounts recoverable as arrears of land revenue and
for the maintenance of record of rights and shall perform all such
duties and functions as are provided for in the Maharashtra Land
Revenue Code or rules thereunder or any law for the time being in
force or by order of the State Government.
17. The Talathi shall prepare, whenever called upon by any superior
revenue or police officer of the taluka or district to do so, all writings
connected . Village Level Administration / 30 1 with the concerns of a
village, which are required either for the use of the Central or State
Government or the public, such as notices, reports of inquests and
depositions and examinations in criminal matters.

Kotwal:
The kotwal performs the following duties:
1. To accompany Government remittances to sub -treasuries;
2. Call the villagers to the chawadi for paying Government dues and to
remain present at the chawadi at the time of collection of land
revenue;
3. To keep a watch on Government money and office records;
4. To carry the village daftar to and from the tahsil office;
5. To carry Government tapal to and from the tahsil office;
6. To accompany village officers and touring officers at the time of crop
and boundary marks inspections;
7. To summon persons on whom notices are to be served and to assist
the police patil in serving summons;
8. To collect information about births and deaths;
9. To accompany the police patils and the police at the time of night
rounds;
10. To announce Government orders in the village by beating t he drums;
11. To assist the vaccinator in his work of vaccination;
12. To help the police patil in the case of accidental deaths and fires
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13. To report movements of criminals and to assist the police in the
investigation and prevention of crimes;
14. To keep guard on prisoners in the police patils custody;
15. To assist the village officers at the time of recovery of land revenue;
and
16. To render assistance to Government officers on duty in the village.

4.6 ALLIED UNITS OF REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
4.6.1. Land records department:
Closely allied to the revenue department in the lands record whose main
function is to survey lands, prepare survey records and to conduct
periodical revenue settlement operations and revise the agricultural
assessment of land. The survey records prepared for the department are
essential for several activities including land acquisition preparation of
development plans and settlements of land disputes. Another important
function which has developed on the department since 1947 is the
implementation of the Bombay prevention of fragmentation and
consolidation of holdings act, 1947.

The land records department is headed by the settlement commissioner
and director of land records who is an IA S officer of the rank of secretary .
At the divisional level there are six deputy directors of land records with
headquarters at Bombay, Pune, Nasik, Aurangabad, Amravati, and
Nagpur. At the district level there is a district inspector of land records in
each district who maintains the land records in respect of the district. In
cities there are city survey officers who are either from the revenue
department order land records department to maintain land records. In
Bombay city all the land records are maintained in the collector‘s office.

4.6.2. Registration department:
Another department closely related to revenue department and the land
records department in the registration department established under the
Indian registration act 1908.The principle function of the department is the
registration of documents under the registration act in respect of all
transactions. However documents relating to immovable property form a
sizable portion of these documents. The settlement commissioner and
director of land records is also the Inspector Gene ral of registration and
the registrar general of births deaths and marriages, the registrar of
marriages under the various acts relating to marriage registrations and the
chief controlling Revenue Authority under the Bombay stamp act 1958
and the Bombay co urt fees at 1959 for the whole state except greater
Bombay, the registration department does not have any organization at the
divisional level, but at the district level the collector is the ex -officer
district registrar. There is also a joint district reg istrar for every district
who has been declared as registrar under the act. For all practical
purposes, the joint district registrars act at the district registrars subject to
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4.6.3. Stamp department:
Yet another department closely associated with the revenue department is
the stamp department. The Inspector General of registration is the chief
controlling Revenue Authority for stamps for the whole state except
greater Bombay weather chief controlling Revenue Autho rity for stamps is
the collector of greater Bombay.

The main function of the stamps office in Bombay is to stalk and cell
judicial and non -judicial stamp to the public in Bombay and to supply
them to district offices. The sale of stamp is done through sal aried stamp
vendors in greater Bombay and through licensed stop vendors in the
suburbs. The office also adjudicates and determines stamp duty on
documents presented for adjudication under the Indian stamp act 1899 and
this Bombay stamp act 1958 certifies d ocuments impounded after
recovering deficit duty and penalty and grants refunds on spoiled or
unused stamps.

In the districts, the sale of stamps of the denominations up to rupees 600 is
done mostly through licensed and vendors who are supplied stamps by the
treasuries and sub treasuries. Stamps about this denomination are sold to
the public by the treasuries or sub treasuries. Matters such as adjudication
of stamp duty grant of refunds etc. are attended to by the respective
collectors. The Inspector Gene ral of registration is the appellate authority
against the decision of the collector.

4.6.4. Board revenue tribunal:
The board of revenue was initially conceived during the regime of the East
India Company as an agency to help the company‘s government in its
detailed work in the fields of revenue and administration. The Britisher‖s
had discovered a synthesis between collection revenue and the general
administration. The first board of revenue set up in Bengal in 1768.
Madras Tamil Nadu soon followed suit i n course of time this organization
came to be set up in most of other provinces. Does, today we find a board
of revenue in all states except Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, And Haryana
Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab which has one or more
financial commissioners instead of board. The board of revenue is as
unique in its constitution and composition as in its evolution. At represents
a classic deviation from the general pattern of executive departments. This
may be attributed to its peculiar synthesis of administrative advisory an
quasi -judicial functions.

The number of members of the board of revenue varies from one to five.
The board of revenue in Andhra Pradesh has five members while in Bihar
and Orissa it consists of one full time member. The boar ding UP has
divided into distinct wings judicial wing located at Allahabad and the
administrative wing shifted to Luck now. The Allahabad wing has three
members we‘re exclusively engaged in judicial work. There assisted in
their work by a registrar. The Lu cknow wing comprises three members
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the board the members of the boards are selected out of senior is officers.
The states of Maharashtra and Gujarat have the institution of revenue
tribunal instead of the board of revenue. The revenue tribunal was
established in Maharashtra under the Bombay revenue act of 1957. The
tribunal consists of the president and 14 members. The divisional
commissioners RX officer members of the tribunal. The G ujarat revenue
tribunal consists of eight members that is the president, four non official
members and three divisional commissioners. In both the states and
judicial work relating to revenue administration vests in the tribunal
whereas revenue administrat ion has been centralized in the revenue
department.

The functions of the board vary from state to state the board performs the
following functions:
1. It acts as a buffer between government and district administration and
eases out the pressure from both sid es
2. It coordinates and supervises the work of various departments in the
division.
3. It is the head of the revenue administration in the division and hears
appeals against the orders of district collectors and supervisors the
work of collectors in the division
4. It advises the state government on all matters referred to it.

4.6.5 Revenue Tribunals :
There are two tribunals connected with lands Maharashtra revenue
tribunal: The Maharashtra revenue tribunal is an important tribunal
established under the Mah arashtra land Revenue Code to hear appeals,
against the orders of Revenue Officers under certain laws relating to land
revenue, like tenancy, abolition of special imams, vatans etc. It has the
power of a civil code for taking evidences on oathsummoning wit nesses,
compelling the production of documents but it has no jurisdiction any
matter which is sub -juiced or which involves a question of the validity of
any law. The tribunal consist of 30 members including the chairman. It has
Five benches each of three m embers at Bombay, pony Aurangabad and
not poor and A1 member being shared Kolhapur the headquarters of the
tribunal was in Bombay.

Under the Maharashtra agricultural lands (Ceiling on Land holdings) act
1961.The government has appointed two tribunals at t he block level for
each taluka.
I) Surplus land determination tribunal.
II) Land distribution Tribunal.

What these tribunals consist of the tehsildar or additional tehsildar as
chairman two or three non -officials by government.

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4.7 SUMMARY
Revenue administration mostly known for the collection of revenue, but
the department of revenue has to perform many others task related to
disaster management, land record, election duties etc., so the department
has other branches like land record, reven ue tribunal, stamp and
registration department. Keeping in the all activities the department is
definitely dominant and responsible for the development of the district and
ultimately villages in the domain.

4.8. KEYWORDS Circle Inspectors : Higher post to village revenue officer(Talathi) NaibTahasildar : Officer Next to Tahasildar on Block level. Patwari : Village level revenue officer (Talathi) Non Agricultural : Land for commercial use. Kotwal : Assistant to Talathi. Chawadi : Traditionally a village meeting place.
4.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Descriptive :
i) Explain the role of Collector in revenue administration.
ii) Write various functions of revenue administration.
iii) Elaborate the revenue machinery in brief.

MCQs :
1. Land related documents are made available to the citizens by which
administration?
A. Police administration.
B. Development Administration.
C. Revenue administration.
D. Public administration
2. Who is the main revenue administration officer at Block Level?
A. Tahasildar.
B. Landlord.
C. Member of Parliament.
D. Gramsevak.

3. Who is the Chief Revenue Officer at the district level?
A. Tahasildar.
B. Landlord.
C. Member of Parliament.
D. Gramsevak. munotes.in

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4. In which year the Government of Maharashtra adopted the new Land
Revenue Code?
A. 1960
B. 1966
C. 1950
D. 1956
5. In which document is the land of farmers recorded?
A. Pass book
B. Modification register
C. Rationing card.
D. Account book.

4.10 REFERENCES
 Principle of taxation in Ancient India, Siddhantashastree, Rabindra
Kumar - 1966.
 Papers on the Land Revenue System of British India by R C Datt'S
1902. ( Reprint )
 Panchayat Raj and Rural Development - Dr.Jagdeep Singh
&Dr.AnjuBeniwal. ZilhaPrashasan – Dr. Dashankar.



*****
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5

MACHINERY OF LAW AND ORDER IN
DISTRICT

Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction.
5.2 Objectives.
5.3 Key Concept.
5.4 Principles Of Law And Order.
5.5 Methods Of Creating Law And Order.
5.6 Features Of Police Administration.
5.7 Police Rank.
5.8 Maharashtra State Police Force Post Structure.
5.9 Police Training School.
5.10 Summary
5.11 Keywords.
5.12 Unit End Questions.
5.13 References.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The word police have been derived from the Greek ‗Politeia‘. It means
establishing peace and managing the law of a defined area. The police are
the guardian of the people and can never be far away from the public. The
police is the primary force for the pr otection of the individual in the
enjoyment of their legal rights designed to stand between the powerful and
the weak to prevent oppression, disaster and crime, and to represent the
cause of law and order at all times and in all places. In every court or
alley, the policeman stands for good citizenship. He is a reality to
comprehend and upon his impartiality, efficiency and intelligence depends
the estimation in which law is held by the masses.

As far as India is concern, since ancient times, the Nayaks, DandPalaks (दंड
पालक), kotwals were working to protect the citizens. In 1765, the British
started the Daroga ( दरोगा) system and created the post of District
DandNayak ( दंड नायक) in 1781, thus entrusting the police administration
with the responsibility of c reating law and order since British times.
The police have to prevent or take precautionary measures to ensure that
there is little or no scope for the commission of crime or disturbance of
law and order. This profession requires a more 1 acute sense of
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professions. The police have to detect crimes, identify the guilty and
apprehend them under the law. It is not uncommon and unnatural for the
members of the police force (since they are so vis ible and are being judged
all the time by the public, the politicians and their own bosses) to want to
show results and achieve targets.

Another major task of the police is to arrange to prosecute the accused
under the relevant provisions of the law (thro ugh state prosecutors) and
send them up for trial before the court to secure their conviction. Police is
a state subject and is specified, as such, in List II -State List in the seventh
schedule of the Constitution. The centre has no police. It has at its
command paramilitary forces such as the CRPF, CISF, BSF and so on
created by the Acts of Parliament for which Art 355 of the Constitution
gives sanction. These are the armed forces of the Union meant to be
deployed in a state only in aid of civil power for the purpose of restoring
and presenting public order.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the concept of law and order.
2. To understand meaning and scope of police administration.
3. The lesson has aim of understanding principles of police
administration.
4. To study the features of police administration.
5. To know about present machinery of law and order at various level.
6. The purpose of this course is to study various Police Personnel
Administration with its importance.

5.3 KEY CONCEPT
Law And Order: The enactment and enforcement of laws for the safe,
civil, and orderly functioning of society.

Police: Public Officer for Legal Investigation and Criminal
Emergencies.

According to above acronyms it is observed that, the person working with
the department has certain rights related to the enactment and
enforcement of laws in the arisen situation, but same time they have
responsibilities to maintain fearless environment i n the society so,
ethically and in true sense following meaning of each alphabet is given.

P-Politeness behaves politely
O-Obedience
L-Loyalty/ loyal
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C- Courage patient
E – Efficient.

5.4 PRINCIPLES OF LAW AND ORDER
The British passed the Indian Police Act, which has a total of 47 sections,
on March 22, 1861. Subsequently, the functioning and scope of the
Mumbai Police Act 1951 Police Administration have been fixed. It is the
responsibility of the police administration under the Home Department to
maintain law and order in the states. Initially, the only work of the police
was to protect the lives and property of the citizens, but at present, the
work of the police seems to be increasing day by day.

The following principles are important while establishing law and order.
1. Law and order should be complementary to each other.
2. The main objective of law and order should be to protect everyone.
3. Priority for civil power should be in the highest place in law and
order.
4. The rule of law should be recognized.
5. The use of force should be approved to establish law and order.

5.5 METHODS OF CREATING LAW AND ORDER
1. Granting rights
2. Adopting tolerance
3. Finding and correcting mistakes
4. Taking accountability and en trusting responsibility
5. Adopting honesty
6. Investigation and filing of cases against the offender
7. Creating internal security
8. To take Preventive Measures
9. Firing if required
10. Banning large gatherings during an emergency.

5.6 FEATURES OF POLICE ADMINISTRATION –
Maharashtra Police Administration is known as an efficient
policeadministration in Indian police administrationbecause of their
characteristics.

1. Creation and Regulation by Law :
Maharashtra Police Administration is created and regulated under The
Indian Police Act 1861 and Mumbai Police Act 1951.
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2. Control of Home Department :
Home Minister and Home Secretary of Home Department control the
entire police administration of the state.

3. Independent Uniform, Flag, Motto :
The flag of the Maharashtra police administration is dark blue, there is a
star which has two circles in the middle in which there is a palm, and
below the star is the motto "SadrakshnayaKhalnigranaya" ( "सदर¢णाय ,
खलǓनĒहणाय ")(to protect g ood and destroy evil). The uniform includes a
khaki pants shirt and a black cap.

4. The State Police is led by the Director -General of Police :
The Director -General of Police is the leader of the police administration in
the state.

5. Police Area :
For the convenience of administration, the police administration of
Maharashtra has been divided into eight areas:
1. Thane - District : Thane, Ratnagiri, Raigad, Sindhudurg
2. Nashik - District : Nashik, Ahmednagar, Jalgaon, Dhule, Nandurbar.
3. Nagpur - District: Nagpur, Wardha, Bhandara, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli.
4. Kolhapur - District : Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Sangli, Solapur.
5. Amravati - District: Amravati, Washim, Yavatmal, Buldhana.
6. Aurangabad - District: Aurangabad,Jalna,Osmanabad,Beed.
7. Nanded - Distri ct:Nanded, Latur, Parbhani,Hingoli.
8. Railway Route – District: Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune Division.

1. Police Commissionerate:
Police Commissionerate is created for big or metropolitan cities, Presently
Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Thane, Pune, Nagpur, Nashik, Amravat i, Solapur,
Aurangabad cities and Railway Police, Commissionerate Mumbai Police
Commissionerate are there in Maharashtra. Apart from the above Police
Commissionerate, eight police stations in the state and an officer are not
less than the rank of Special I nspector General of Police is carrying out the
work of maintaining the area head area and order in collaboration with
police officers.

2. Police Control:
Secret News, Crime Investigation, Armed Police Force, Traffic Control,
Guard Special functions together along with the Department of Police in
the state. Lady police are also present in the state police system, they are
of special use in the context of women criminals. They work with equal
efficiency and honesty as their male officer counterparts in the police
department.

3. Railway Police Force :
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activities in the state. The Inspector -General of Police leads the Railway
Police Force. Currently, Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur has railway police
administration departments.

4. State Reserve Police Force :
The State Reserve Police Force was established in 1951 to create
efficiency and discipline in t he police administration and is headquartered
in Pune. His chief is a special inspector general of the police officer. At
present, the group has 12 departments/group heads, and the group chief is
called commander.

5.The responsibility of maintaining State Law and Order :
Protection, prevention, controlling all issues related to law and order, are
the three main responsibilities of the police system of the state. The police
department is a state subject and its functioning is controlled by the state
home mi nistry. The police administration works as per the laws given in
the Indian Penal Code. The Director -General of Police is the highest in the
State Police Department. Additional Director General of Police, Inspector
General of Police, Deputy Inspector Gener al of Police, Assistant
Inspector -General of Police, District Superintendent of Police, Deputy
Superintendent of Police, Assistant Sub Inspector of Police, Assistant Sub
Inspector of Police, Police Head Constable, Police Naik, Police Constable.

5.7 POLICE RANK Police Ranks 1. Director-General of Police 2. Add. Director-General of Police 3. Inspector-General of Police / Special Inspector General of Police 4. Dy. Inspector-General of Police
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5. Superintendent of Police / Deputy Commissioner of Police (Selection Grade) 6. Superintendent of Police / Deputy Commissioner of Police (Junior Management Grade) 7. Add. Superintendent of Police/ Deputy Commissioner of Police (Less than 10 years ofservice) 8. Add. Superintendent of Police / Deputy Commissioner of Police (State Police Service) 9. Assistant Superintendent of Police 10. Dy. Superintendent of Police / SDPO/ Assistant Commissioner of Police (A.C.P.) 11. Police Inspector (P.I.) 12. Assistant Police Inspector (A.P.I.)
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13. Police Sub Inspector (P.S.I.) 14. Assistant Police Sub Inspector (A.S.I.) 15. Head Constable (H.C.) 16. Police Naik (P.N.) 17. Police Constable (P.C.)
5.8 MAHARASHTRA STATE POLICE FORCE POST STRUCTURE
1. Director General of Police
2. Addl. Director General of Police
3. Special Inspector General of Police
4. Deputy Inspector General of Police
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5. Superintendent of Police
6. Deputy Superintendent of Police/ Assista nt Commissioner of
Police
7. Senior Inspector of Police
8. Inspector of Police
9. Assistant Inspector of Police
10. Sub-inspector of police
11. Assistant Sub Inspector of Police
12. Police Head Constable
13. Police Naik
14. Police Constable
15. Police Patil

1. Director General of Police :
The leadership and responsibility of the Police Administration of the State
of Maharashtra lie with the Director -General of Police; the Director -
General of Police is the Head of the Police Administration of the State,
under his guidance and control. Before 1982, the Chief of Police of the
State was the Inspector General of Police, but since 1982, the Chief of
Police of the State of Maharashtra is called the Director -General of Police
instead of the Inspector Gen eral of Police. In 1982, K.P. Medhekar was
the Director -General of Police is a very experienced officer in the Indian
Police Services. The Director -General of Police is appointed by the State
Government. The Headquarters of the Director -General of Police i s in
Mumbai. There are three to four Additional Directors General of Police
and five to six Sub -Inspectors -General of Police officers and other officers
are working to help the Director General of Police.

2. Addl. Director General of Police :
Power and the ir Duties :
1. To lead the police administration in the state and to guide the officers
and staff of the police administration in the state,
2. To maintain law and order in the state or to give such orders. Taking
final decisions on promotion, training appointments, and suspension,
etc.
3. To review law and order as well as the work of the Police Force from
time to time,
4. To honours the officers who have done excellent work and to
recommend the officers and staff who do unique work for the
President's Medal,
5. To attend meetings at the state and central level and to submit a report
on the work of the State Police Force.

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The Director -General of Police is the head and surveyor of the State Police
Force. Under his/her guidance and control of the State Police Force, the
Police Administration of the State is always working.

3. Special Inspector General of Police :
The fourth rank is the special inspector g eneral of police as per the status
of administration in the Maharashtra Police Force. The police
administration in the state has been regionally divided. This is called the
police area. At present, there are eight such police stations in
Maharashtra. The special inspector general of police is selected as the
main port of that area. The state government has the power to transfer,
appoint, and promote them. Each area consists of four to five districts.
Special Inspector General of Police is the administrativ e head of the area.
They have to maintain and control the entire police administration in the
area.

4. Deputy Inspector General of Police:

Powers and Functions of Special Inspector General of Police& Deputy
Inspector

General of Police :
1. Review the work by holding meetings of all district Superintendents
of Police in the area.
2. Guiding the officers of the area and giving appropriate instructions.
3. Visiting and inspecting the district police officers and police stations
in the perip hery.
4. Taking cognizance of police complaints.
5. To take decisions to punish police officers for transfer, promotion,
and if appropriate action on complaints.
6. To instruct and guide the Superintendent of Police in handling the
situation if the Law -and- Order issue is serious at a place in the
periphery.
7. To call for necessary information reports from the police
administration in the area and to submit a report to the seniors to
attend the meetings convened by the seniors.
8. Supervising the police parade being present in the field of sports
competitions, police welfare programmers, etc. are held.
9. Felicitation of Officers and Employees, who do good work.
10. To fulfil the responsibility entrusted by the state government and
seniors.

5. Superintendent of Police (SP) :
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first created in the year1808. All the police administrations in the dis trict
work under the Superintendent of Police

District Superintendent of Police Office Designation
1. District Superintendent of Police
2. Upper Superintendent of Police
3. Deputy Chairman of Police/Sub Divisional Police Officer
4. Inspector of Pol ice
5. Assistant Inspector of Police
6. Sub Inspector of Police
7. Assistant Sub Inspector of Police /Jamadar
8. Police Head Constable
9. Police Naik
10. Police Constable

 Selection and appointment :
The post of District Superintendent of Police is directly appointed by the
Union and the Public Service Commission or Deputy Chairman of
Police/Sub Divisional Police Officer is promoted to the post of District
Superintendent of Police.

 Other conditions of retirement in pay -disbursed retirement :
The Cent ral Government has the power to fix the salary of the District
Superintendent of Police and to dismiss him and fix other conditions of
service, but his salary and allowances are paid from the state government
funds. The Superintendent of Police of the Cent ral Service retires after 60
years of age and the Superintendent of Police in the State Service retires
after completing 58 years. The Superintendent of Police can resign before
retirement. There is a provision that can lead to the dismissal of the
charges are proved by inquiring based on corruption, misconduct, and
inefficiency.

 Rights and Functions :
The District Superintendent of Police has to do a lot of work as the head of
the district police administration -

I. Maintaining of law and order :
The first and most important task is to maintain law and order in the entire
district, for which it is important to find and arrest criminals and register
cases against them.

II. Recruitment of the post of Police Force :
The Superintendent of Police has to do the j ob of recruiting sanctioned and
vacant posts like drivers, etc. for the police of the District Police Force.
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III. Training recruitment and transfer works :
Provision of training of newly recruited and old police officers and
employees: Promotion or promotion of eligible employees as per
requirement and rules.

IV. Creating discipline and efficiency :
To create discipline and efficiency in the district police administration,
police parades and various tests and special efforts to boost the morale of
the brotherhood should be honoured by prize awards and good employee
promotion.

V. Guidance and Control Work :
As the head of the district police force, the police officers and staff of the
district are guided on various subjects.

VI. Compliance with the Court ordersand Seniors :
The Superintendent of Police has to follow the order passed by the court as
well as comply with the orders given by senior officers like Special
Deputy Inspector General of Police, District Collector, and Di rector
General of State Government Police.

VII. Meeting and Report Work :
Attending meetings convened by seniors submitting district police
administration reports as well as holding meetings of subordinate officers
and staff of the district to review their work.

VIII. Work of Police Welfare :
SP also has to honour the police personnel by providing development
systems, health care, entertainment facilities, sports facilities, organizing
various competitions of police personnel, as well as providing education al
facilities and technical vocational training facilities to their children, and
recommending employees for national and state awards for outstanding
work.

IX. Crime Elimination and Protection of Very Important Persons :
Illegal trade, smuggling in the di strict, collection of the blackmarket,
ransom of goods, theft, road accidents, rape, and murder, etc. SP must
reduce or eliminate the majority of these crimes. Protecting VIPs who
come to visit the district area is also one of the responsibilities of SP.

X. Public Relations Work :
Law and order cannot be created without the help of the people, so it is
important to improve the relations between the people and the police by
efficient working and transparency.

6. Deputy Superintendent of Police :
The post of Deputy Superintendent of Police is important in the
Maharashtra Police Service. The post was created on the recommendation
of the 1902 Police Reforms Commission. (The Governor -General in munotes.in

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Council with approval of the Secretary of the State for India appoin ted the
Second All -India Police Commission in the year 1902to study the State of
police organization in different provinces of the country and to make the
police force effective in the changing context of Indian politics). The
Deputy Superintendent of Poli ce is elected directly through competitive
examination through the Maharashtra Public Service Commission and
senior police inspectors are appointed as Deputy Superintendent of Police.
The state government has the power to provide other services by
promotin g the Deputy Superintendent of Police to the post of
Superintendent of Police. This post is appointed as the Deputy
Superintendent of Police by combining three to four talukas of the district
and creating a sub -division and also appointed as the Deputy
Superintendent of Police and The Head of the Department sub -division,
i.e., officers of the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police also have to
act as sub -divisional police officers.

Tenure: Deputy Superintendent of Police can continue in office till he
completes 58 years of age. He can resign before the retirement period is
over. Also, based on the non -inefficiency of misbehaviour, the state
government can dismiss him after inquiry.

b. Rights and Functions :
The Deputy Superintendent of Police has to wor k under the guidance and
control of the District Superintendent of Police.
1. To guide the officers of the sub -division of jurisdiction.
2. Assign the responsibilities to officers under his control.
3. Establishing law and order in the sub -division of t he jurisdiction.
4. Creating discipline and efficiency among the employees in the field of
work under Sub -Division.
5. Complaining to seniors to take additional action against the
indiscipline and inefficient employees of the sub -division.
6. Giving surprise visits to police stations to check documents.
7. Creating good relations with society to control criminal activities.
8. Holding meetings of previous employees and reviewing the work.
9. Attending meetings convened by seniors. Submissi on of reports which
they have demanded.
10. To comply with the order given by the Superintendent of Police and
other senior officers.

7. Senior Inspector of Police: Senior Inspector of Police some time very
next to the Dy. SP in the area. Sr. Inspector a nd Inspector of police have to
perform role as per the given below.

8. Inspector of Police: The regional level system of police administration
is the police stations. Senior Inspector of Police & The police inspector
officer any one would be the head of t he police station as per the posting
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and urban police stations in the state. Rural police stations are constructed
at the taluka level or in big village areas in rural areas and ci ty police
stations are set up taking into account the population and crime in urban
areas.

a. Selection of Police Inspector :
The post of Police Inspector is filled up by promotion in the post of Sub -
Inspector of Police, selected by the Maharashtra Public Service
Commission or the Head Constable is appointed to the post of Sub -
Inspector of Police by recruiting these employees directly by training and
recruiting selected police inspectors in direct service or promotional
manner.

b. Powers and functions of Inspector of Police
1. Elimination of crime by establishing law and order in the field of
work.
2. Guiding and controlling subordinate employees.
3. Making efforts to create discipline and efficiency among employees.
4. Visiting the police post/chowki and monitoring their work.
5. To assign the responsibility of the employees, to share the work, or to
hold a duty parade, to attend the parade.
6. To try and curb criminal activities, etc. under their periphery, contact
the public and seek their help.
7. Complaining to seniors to take action against misbehaviour and
inefficient employees.
8. To check the daily record of work at the police station as well as
checking of weapons in the police station.
9. The arrest of criminals and file cases against th em in court.
10. To take useful information from junior officers, attend a meeting
convened by the seniors and report thane as well as fulfil the
responsibility entrusted to the seniors.

9. Assistant Inspector of Police : The rank insignia for an ASI is o ne star,
with a red and blue striped ribbon at the outer edge of the shoulder straps.
He/she can be an Investigating officer. A.S.I. is often the officer in charge
of Police Outposts or "phari" and Investigation Centres.

10. Sub -inspector of police : The Sub -Inspector in charge of a Police
Station is fully responsible for the Police Administration of his charge.
The Sub -Inspector is an important and vital functionary in the police
department. He shall be responsible for proper management of the station
and optimum utilization of the resources and facilities available. It shall be
his duty to manage the staff and work of the police station in accordance
with the law and rules and to make the police station a place where the
needy public gets necessary an d immediate response. The image of the
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Sub-Inspector and his staffs in the station, as it is at that 31 point, public
has a direct access with the police. The Sub -Inspector and his st aff should
behave politely and courteously with the public giving an impression of
friendly approach. Active co -operation from Citizen Committees shall be
solicited in the matters of L&O, crime prevention etc. All illegal methods
or ill treatments against persons should be avoided at all costs giving way
to an impression to the public that the police are there to extend their
helping hand in the discharge of their duties. The Sub -Inspector must
respect human values and human dignity and should know that pow ers are
vested in him to discharge his duties legitimately but not to arrogate to
satisfy his ego and vanity. If he crosses his limits he will be doing so at his
risk as the department will not come to his rescue.

11. As sistant Sub Inspector of Police : The following shall be the duties
of the Assistant Sub -Inspector.
A. Investigation of simple cases as directed by SHO and assisting
investigation in all cases handled by SHOs and other superior officers
B. Petition enquiry
C. Checking of enquiries in verification rolls
D. Supervision of service of process work
E. To function as an officer in charge of a beat area and check patrols
F. Direct supervision or handling of station scriptory work
G. Detailing duties to the staff during Sub -Inspectors a bsence and
exercising supervision and control over the Constables and Head
Constables
H. Maintenance of cash book
I. Preparation of pay and traveling allowance bills (He should sign them
only when the SI is absent)
J. Maintenance of arms and ammuniti on and registers connected
therewith
K. To be in charge of outpost or beat and perform these duties when
posted there
L. Such other work as may be entrusted to him

12. Police Head Constable: Head Constables are mainly employed to be
in charge of gener al duty in police stations, as station writer, as officer in
charge of out post and guards, armed reserves, in charge of beat areas in
rural and town police stations. He acts as SHO in the absence of Sub -
Inspector and Asst. Sub -Inspector. He is authorised to hold inquests and
make investigation when asked by the Sub Inspector to do so.

13. Police Naik: Police Naik is senior one most to the constable as per the
rank and duties of the both are as given below.

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As the most accessible person for public, he is expected to protect the
needy, rescue people from danger, apprehend offenders and assist in
securing prompt help and justice. Some of the important roles assigned to
him are organizing and securing community participation, activising
himself in prevention and detection of crime and maintenance of law and
order. Another main role of the Constable is, performance of all tasks
connected with beat area and thereby help in prevention of offence and
breach of peace. The constable on traffic duty has the task of regulating
traffic. All constables in their dealings with public should inspire
confidence in the efficacy of police to protect them. The police image is
directly proportionate to their good conduct and behaviour in the public as
they are the persons who are basically and directly in touch with them. At
all costs they must avoid ill treatment either to the victims or to the
accused as a first step to build the bette r police image.

15. Police Patil :
The post of Police Patil was first created in the British era according to the
Mumbai Civil of 1857, but the post, which was inherited, was cancelled by
the government in 1946, but Police Patil has been appointed in ever y
village since the post of Police Patil was re -created under the Maharashtra
Gram Police Act, 1967.

a. Eligibility : The following eligibility for the post of Police Patil has
been fixed:
1. Police Patil should be a resident of the village concerned.
2. He/ She should be 25 to 45 years old.
3. He/ She should be physically competent.
4. His/ her behaviour should be good.
5. He/ She should have passed at least 10th.
6. Priority should be given to backward classes.
7. He/ She cannot do any job.
8. He/ She cannot accept any other post.

b. Appointment and control :
The right to appoint Police Patilis given to the Deputy Collector or
Divisional Officer. The first appointment is for five years, and then the
extension can be extended up to the age of sixty years. The police Patil‘s
are controlled by the Talathi, Tehsildar, and the concerned police station.

c. Leave and Honorarium :
Tehsildar has the right to grant leave to police Patil. The children of Police
Patilwhofulfill other conditions are given free e ducation. The state
government has the right to determine the honorarium of Police Patil, it is
rupees 1200/ - (one thousand two hundred)

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crime within the v illage limits.
2. Inform the police seniors about persons carrying unlicensed weapons
and drugs.
3. To help curb the crime in the village. Maintaining security in the
village.
4. To inform tehsildars and police about the natural calamities and
reporting infectious diseases.
5. Providing necessary information and documents to senior officers.

5.9 POLICE TRAINING SCHOOL
There are police training schools at the following places in the state 1.
Khandala, District Pune, 2. Jalna, 3. Nagpur, 4. Akola, 5. Nanbij,Daund
District - Pune, 6. Peral -Mumbai, 7. Solapur - Women's Training, 8. Crime
Investigation Training School, Nashik, 9. Unconventional Operational
Training Centre & Special Action Group (Alpha Hawks) for SRPF XII,
Nagpur.

Special Security Training School is functioning at Ramtekdi, Pune to train
officers and staff of the Special Security Department. The head of the
police training college is called the principal. The head office of this
college is in Mumbai. Maharashtra Police Prabodhini is working in
Nashik, where the candidates selected as Deputy Superintendent of Police
Assistant Commissioner of Police are trained.

In this capacity above postsare responsible for the maintenance of law and
order in his district. Three elements are involve d i.e. – the police, the
judiciary, and the jails. As District Magistrate, he/ she perform the
following functions:
1. To control and supervise the subordinate magistracy.
2. In case of threat to public peace, to order imposition under section 144
of the criminal procedure code.
3. To inspect the jails.
4. To release prisoners on parole.
5. To submit an annual criminal report to the government.
6. To grant, suspend, or cancel many kinds of licenses like arms, hotels,
etc.
7. To control and dir ect the action of district police.
8. To enforce Entertainment Tax Act and Press Act.
9. To order disposal of unclaimed property.
10. To recommend schemes for the development of forests.
11. To supervise and control local bodies.
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5.10 SUMMARY
Higher authorities also act in many ways as an agent of the judiciary. The
executions of the rights of the civil and criminal courts, including criminal
rights from courts outside the district, are normally done through the
magisterial elements of the dist rict administration. He/ she supervise the
subordinate magistracy and orders magisterial postings when required.
The District Jail is under his/ her general control. Higher authorities can
visit the Jail from time to time to see that all is well and ensure the
expeditious disposal of cases of under -trial prisoners. Higher authorities
deal with different problems connected with the Jail administration. We
will study more in next lesion.

5.11 KEYWORDS
 LAW AND ORDER: The enactment of laws for peace in the state.
 JAMADAR : was originally an armed official of a zamindar (feudal lord).
 POLICE NAIK : followed by the senior constable.

5.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Descriptive:
i) Write the various features of police administration.
ii) Explain the meaning of Law and Order.Explain the role of District
Superintendent of Police in law and order.
iii) Write detail note on Police Patil.

MCQs:
i) The post of Police Patil came up in period.
A. Post-Independence,
B. Mughal,
C. British
D. Portuguese
ii) The first lok -Adalat held in ---state.
A. Maharashtra
B. Bihar,
C. Gujarat,
D. Delhi.



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iii) Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 gave a statutory status to
A. LokAdalats.
B. Public Administration.
C. Loksabha
D. VidhanParishad.

5.13 REFERENCES
 THE BOMBAY POLICE MANUAL 1959 VOLUME I – ADMINISTRATION
Bombay - 1959.
 The Maharashtra Police Act, 1951
 Bombay Act No. 22 of 1951


*****






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6

MACHINERY OF LAW AND ORDER
IN DISTRICT -II

Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Key Concept
6.4 Structure judicial System
6.5 Power & Function Of The Judiciary .
6.6 Civil And Criminal Judicial
6.7 Lok Adalat - (People Judicial)
6.8 The Functioning Of Lok Adalats
6.9 Summary
6.10 Keywords.
6.11 Unit End Questions
6.12 References

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian administration is guided by three pillars – Legislature, Executives,
and Judiciary. Indian Judiciary. In India, we have an independent
judiciary. The other organs of the government cannot interfere with the
functioning of the judiciary. The principa l role of the judiciary is to
protect rule of law and ensure supremacy of law. It safeguards rights of the
individual, settles disputes in accordance with the law and ensures that
democracy does not give way to individual or group dictatorship.

6.2 OBJECT IVES
 To understand the salient features of Indian judiciary.
 To make understand students role of Indian judiciary in protection of
natural as well as fundamental rights of citizens.
 To importance Indian judiciary in democracy.
 To know the structure of In dian judiciary system.


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6.3 KEY CONCEPT
Judiciary: The judiciary is the branch of authority in a country which is
concerned with law and the legal system.

CIVIL: Relating to ordinary citizens and their concerns,

CRIMINAL: A person who has committed a crime.

6.4 STRUCTUREJUDICIAL SYSTEM
The Judiciary is the third organ of the government. It has the responsibility
to apply the laws to specific cases and settle all disputes. The real
‗meaning of law‘ is what the judges decide during the course of giving
their judgments in various cases. From the citizen‘s point of view,
Judiciary is the most important organ of the government because it acts as
their protector against the possible excesses of legislative and executive
organs. Role of Judiciary as th e guardian -protector of the constitution and
the fundamental rights of the people makes it more respectable than other
two organs. There are various levels of judiciary in India – different types
of courts, each with varying powers depending on the tier an d jurisdiction
bestowed upon them. They form a strict hierarchy of importance, in line
with the order of the courts in which they sit, with the Supreme Court of
India at the top, followed by High Courts of respective states with district
judges sitting in District Courts and Magistrates of Second Class and Civil
Judge (Junior Division) at the bottom.

Hierarchy of courts The Indian judiciary is divided into several levels in
order to decentralize and address matters at the grassroots levels. The
basic stru cture is as follows:
1. Supreme Court: It is the Apex court of the country and was
constituted on 28th January 1950. It is the highest court of appeal and
enjoys both original suits and appeals of High Court judgments. The
Supreme Court is comprised of th e Chief Justice of India and 25 other
judges. Articles 124 -147 of the Constitution of India lay down the
authority of the Supreme Court.
2. High Courts: High Courts are the highest judicial body at the State
level. Article 214 lays down the authority of H igh Courts. There are 25
High Courts in India. High Courts exercise civil or criminal jurisdiction
only if the subordinate courts in the State are not competent to try the
matters. High Courts may even take appeals from lower courts. High
Court judges are appointed by the President of India upon consultation
with the Chief Justice of India, the Chief Justice of the High Court and
the Governor of the State.
3. District Courts: District Courts are established by the State
Governments of India for every distr ict or group of districts based on
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administration of High Courts and are bound by High Court judgments.
Every district generally has two kinds of courts:
a. Civil Courts
b. Criminal Courts
District Courts are presided over by District Judges. Additional
District Judges and Assistant District Judges may be appointed
based on the caseload. Appeals against District Court judgments lie
in the High Court.
4. LokAdalats /Village Courts: these are subordinate courts at the
village level which provide a system for alternate dispute resolution in
villages.
5. Tribunals: the Constitution provides the government with the power to
set up special Tribunals for the administration of specific ma tters such
as tax cases, land cases, consumer cases etc.

Appellate jurisdiction refers to the authority of a court to rehear/review a
case decided by a lower court. In India, appellate jurisdiction is vested in
both the Supreme Court and High Courts. They may either overrule or
uphold the judgments of lower courts.

II. Civil Courts :
Civil courts provide remedies for civil wrongs committed by individuals
against other individuals and entities. Civil matters range from property
disputes to breaches of contract to divorce cases. Civil courts follow the
principle of ubi jus ibi remedium (for every wrong the law provides
remedy). Unless expressly or impliedly barred by any other law in force,
civil courts have the jurisdiction to try all suits of civil nature.

The Code of Civil Procedure (CPC) 1908 governs the procedures to be
followed by civil courts in administering civil cases in India.

As a matter of fact, every suit must be instituted before the court of lowest
jurisdiction (the Munsif court). Upon institution, it is decided whether the
respective court has competence to try the case.

The Civil Court hierarchy in districts is as follows:
1. District Court: The court of district judges is the highest civil court in
a district. It exercises both judicial and administrative functions. The
District Judge combines the powers of trying bot h civil and criminal
cases. Hence, they are designated the District and Sessions Judge.
2. Sub-judge Court: if the value of the subject -matter of the suit is worth
more than Rs. 1 lakh, the Sub -judge and Additional Sub -judge courts
may try the suit.
3. Additional Sub -judge Court: this is created based on the case -load.
4. Munsif Court: if the value of the subject -matter of the suit is worth Rs.
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6.5 POWER & FUNCTION OF THE JUDICIARY
The Judiciary is the third organ of the government. It has the responsibility
to apply the laws to specific cases and settle all disputes. The real
‗meaning of law‘ is what the judges decide during the course of giving
their judgments in various cases. Fro m the citizen‘s point of view,
Judiciary is the most important organ of the government because it acts as
their protector against the possible excesses of legislative and executive
organs. Role of Judiciary as the guardian -protector of the constitution and
the fundamental rights of the people makes it more respectable than other
two organs.

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There are various levels of judiciary in India – different types of courts,
each with varying powers depending on the tier and jurisdiction bestowed
upon them. They fo rm a strict hierarchy of importance, in line with the
order of the courts in which they sit, with the Supreme Court of India at
the top, followed by High Courts of respective states with district judges
sitting in District Courts and Magistrates of Second Class and Civil Judge
(Junior Division) at the bottom.

The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial forum and final court
of appeal under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional court,
with the power of constitutional review. Consisti ng of the Chief Justice of
India and 30 sanctioned other judges, it has extensive powers in the form
of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.

As the final court of appeal of the country, it takes up appeals primarily
against verdicts of the hig h courts of various states of the Union and other
courts and tribunals. It safeguards fundamental rights of citizens and
settles disputes between various governments in the country. As an
advisory court, it hears matters which may specifically be referred to it
under the constitution by the President of India.

The law declared by the Supreme Court becomes binding on all courts
within India and also by the union and state governments. Per Article 142,
it is the duty of the president to enforce the decrees (order or mandate) of
the Supreme Court.

Functions of Judiciary and Its Importance:

1. To Give Justice to the people:
The first and foremost function of the judiciary is to give justice to the
people, whenever they may approach it. It awards punishment to those
who after trial are found guilty of violating the laws of the state or the
rights of the people.

The aggrieved (hurt or pained) citizens can go to the courts for seeking
redress (rectify & correct) and compensation. They can do so either when
they fear any harm to their rights or after they have suffered any loss. The
judiciary fixes the quantity and quality of pu nishment to be given to the
criminals. It decides all cases involving grant of compensations to the
citizens.

2. Interpretation and Application of Laws:
One of the major functions of the judiciary is to interpret (explain or
clarify)and apply laws to sp ecific cases. In the course of deciding the
disputes that come before it, the judges interpret and apply laws. Every
law needs a proper interpretation for getting applied to every specific case.
This function is performed by the judges. The law means what the judges
interpret it to mean.
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3. Role in Law -making:
The judiciary also plays a role in law -making. The decisions given by the
courts really determine the meaning, nature and scope of the laws passed
by the legislature. The interpretation of laws by the judiciary amounts to
law-making as it is these interpretations which really define the laws.

Moreover, ‗the judgments delivered by the higher courts, which are the
Courts of Records, are binding upon lower courts. The latter can decide
the cases befo re them on the basis of the decisions made by the higher
courts. Judicial decisions constitute a source of law.

4. Equity (fairness) Legislation (law enactment):
Where a law is silent or ambiguous, or appears to be inconsistent with
some other law of th e land, the judges depend upon their sense of justice,
fairness, impartiality, honesty and wisdom for deciding the cases. Such
decisions always involve law -making. It is usually termed as equity
legislation.

5. Protection of Rights: T he judiciary has the supreme responsibility to
safeguard the rights of the people. A citizen has the right to seek the
protection of the judiciary in case his rights are violated or threatened to be
violated by the government or by private organizations or fellow citizens.
In all such cases, it becomes the responsibility of the judiciary to protect
his rights of the people.

6. Guardian of the Constitution:
The judiciary acts as the guardian of the Constitution. The Constitution is
the supreme law of the land and it is the r esponsibility of the judiciary to
interpret and protect it. For this purpose the judiciary can conduct judicial
review over any law for determining as to whether or not it is in
accordance with the letter and spirit of the constitution. In case any law is
found ultra vires (unconstitutional), it is rejected by the judiciary and it
becomes invalid for future. This power of the court is called the power of
judicial review.

7. Power to get its Decisions and Judgments enforced:
The judiciary has the power no t only to deliver judgments and decide
disputes, but also to get these enforced. It can direct the executive to carry
out its decisions. It can summon any person and directly know the truth
from him.

In case any person is held:
(i) Guilty of not following any decision of the court, or
(ii) Of acting against the direction of the court, or
(iii) Misleading the court, or
(iv) Of not appearing before the court in a case being heard by it, the
Court has the power to punish the person for the contempt of court.
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8. Special Role in a Federation:
In a federal system, the judiciary has to perform an additionally important
role as the guardian of the constitution and the arbiter of disputes between
the centre and states. It acts as an in dependent and impartial umpire
between the central government and state governments as well as among
the states. All legal centre -state disputes are settled by the judiciary.

9. Running of the Judicial Administration:
The judiciary is not a department o f the government. It is independent of
both the legislature and the executive. It is a separate and independent
organ with its own organization and officials. It has the power to decide
the nature of judicial organization in the state. It frames and enforc es its
own rules.

These govern the recruitment and working of the magistrates and other
persons working in the courts. It makes and enforces rules for the orderly
and efficient conduct of judicial administration.

10. Advisory Functions:
Very often the courts are given the responsibility to give advisory opinions
to the rulers on any legal matter. For example, the President of India the
power to refer to the Supreme Court any question of law or fact which is
of public importance.

11. To Conduct Judici al Inquiries:
Judges are very often called upon to head Enquiry Commissions
constituted to enquire into some serious incidents resulting from the
alleged errors or omissions on the part of government or some public
servants. Commissions of enquiry headed by a single judge are also
sometimes constituted for investigating important and complicated issues
and problems.

12. Miscellaneous Functions:
Besides the above major functions, the judiciary also performs several
other functions. Some such functions are the appointment of certain local
officials of the court, choosing of clerical and other employees. Cases
relating to grant of licenses, patents, and copy rights, the appointment of
guardians and trustees, the admission of wills, to appoint trustees to look
after the property of the minors, to settle the issues of successions of
property and rights, issue of administrating the estates of deceased
persons, the appointment of receivers, naturalization of aliens, marriage
and divorce cases, election petitions and the like.

Through all these functions, the Judiciary plays an important role in each
state. It also plays a role in the evolution of Consti tution through the
exercise of its right to interpret and safeguard it against all legislative and
executive excesses.

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6.6 CIVIL AND CRIMINAL JUDICIAL MATTERS
Civil Matters:
Disputes relating to property breach of contracts, wrongs committed in
money transactions, minor omissions etc., are categorized as civil wrongs
and could be subject to a civil process. In such cases civil suits should be
instituted by the aggrieved persons. Courts of law administer justice by
considering the nature of the wrong do ne. Civil wrongs are redressed
before civil courts by granting injunctions or by payment of damages or
compensation to the aggrieved party. As a matter of fact, every suit should
be instituted before the court of lowest jurisdiction. In the civil side the
Munsiff's Court is the court of lowest jurisdiction. If the value of the
subject matter of the suit is worth rupees one lakh or below, the Munsiff's
Court is the competent court to try the suit. If the value exceeds above
rupees one lakh the suit should be filed before the Subordinate Judge's
Court (Sub Court). An appeal from the decision of the Munsiff court is
filed before the District Court. Appeals from the decisions of the Sub
Court are filed before the District Court if the subject matter of the suit is
valued up to rupees two lakhs. If the value is above rupees two lakhs, the
appeal should be filed before the High Court and next to the Supreme
Court. An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment,
decree or final order in a civil proceedin g of a High Court in the territory
of India if the High Court certifies -(a) that the case involves a substantial
question of law of general importance; and (b) that in the opinion of the
High Court the said question needs to be decided by the Supreme Court .

Criminal matters:
A criminal case is one where a person or a company, (known as 'the
defendant' or 'the accused') is accused of committing a criminal offence
like burglary, assault, battery and cases of murder . Criminal
prosecution has generally two streams in India. The first relates to criminal
cases which are initiated on the basis of police report or FIRs lodged with
the police, whereas the second stream relates to cases that are initiated on
the basis of pr ivate complaints. In respect of the first stream, prosecution
is conducted by the Director of Public Prosecution through public
prosecutors. Specifically Section 225 of the CrPC provides that every trial
before a Sessions Court shall be conducted by a publ ic prosecutor. In
addition to this private parties can also conduct the cases through their
own lawyers in respect of private complaints.

What is the difference between a civil and criminal case?
A criminal case is filed by the government and is led by a prosecuting
attorney. A civil case is filed by a private party, typically an individual or
corporation, against another individual or corporation. ... Both involve
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6.7 LOK ADALAT - (PEOPLE JUDIC IAL)
The concept of LokAdalats stands as a unique contribution of the Indian
legal system to world legal jurisprudence. It is an informal system of
justice dispensation which has largely succeeded in providing a
supplementary forum to litigants for determ ination and settlement of
disputes. Originating from Gandhian principles by Mahatma Gandhi, it has
become a major helping hand to courts and is prescribed in Section 89 of
the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 as well.

The advent of Legal Services Authority Act, 1987 further gives a statutory
status to these LokAdalats, promoting the constitutional mandate of
Article 39 -A of the Constitution of India, which directs the state to
organize LokAdalats to secure that the operation of the legal system,
promotes jus tice on a basis of equal opportunity . These LokAdalats
provide three -fold benefits involving speedy resolution of disputes
coupled with reduced costs of litigation and avoiding further appeals,
thereby making them the perfect instrument to resolve the hei ghtened
burdened on judiciary for disposing cases. In 2018 alone, about 47 lakh
cases were disposed of in National LokAdalats, which included about 21
lakh pending cases and 26 lakh pre -litigation cases. Therefore, their
efficacy has been a linchpin in red ucing excessive litigation.

Keeping in mind their contribution to Indian jurisprudence, the author
shall discuss the concept of LokAdalats in the country, their functioning,
advantages, places for improvement and their role as functionaries towards
access to justice for the poor and downtrodden.

6.8 THE FUNCTIONING OF LOK ADALATS
Level of Organization :
LokAdalats are better known as the people‘s courts, therefore they need to
be available to people on every level of governance. The Legal Services
Authority Act, 1987 (Hereafter ― the Act ‖) prescribes for several levels
wherein LokAdalats can be organized, ranging from the lowest courts to
the apex court which can take cognizance and organize LokAdalats for
effective and speedy justice. The persons re siding over these Adalats
include serving or retired judicial officials as well as other persons as
prescribed by the authority conducting the LokAdalats in the given area.

Jurisdiction :
The jurisdiction of these LokAdalats is parallel to the courts organ izing
them, therefore it extends to any case or matter which is being heard by
that court under its original jurisdiction. Matters with respect to offences
not compoundable under law are an exception to this jurisdiction. They
cannot be adjudicated in LokA dalats. These courts may also take
cognizance of cases as per provisions of the Act for disputes agreed by the
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application to the courts for referring the case to LokAdalats for settlement
and the court is prima facie satisfied that there are chances of settlement.

Resolution and Award :
After admission of disputes, the LokAdalats proceed to hear the case and
dispose of the matter by reaching a settlement or compromise in an
expeditious manner. The manner of resolution in LokAdalats is more
towards compromise and less towards conclusive determination. In any
case, if the parties are unable to reach a compromise and the LokAdalat
deems that matter needs more determination, it can refer the matter back to
the courts for adjudication.

Eventually once the court is satisfied, it passes an award with respect to
the dispute is final and binding on the parties. The award is enforceable as
a decree of the civil court and no appeal lies from this a ward. Therefore,
this provision ensures that the award is conclusive and the matter is put to
rest once and for all.

Advantages of Lok Adalats :
The reason behind the efficiency of LokAdalats is based on several
advantages which it holds over normal courts of law. These factors are
responsible for its quick disposal of several disputes. They are:

Procedural Flexibility :
There exist considerable procedural flexibility as major procedural laws
such as the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 or the Indian Evidence Act,
1882 are not strictly enforced. The parties can interact directly through
their counsels which are not possible in a regular court of law. This
dynamic nature of LokAdalats allows them to conciliate both party
interests and pass awards which are accep table to both parties.

No Court Fees :
There is no court fee payable when a matter is filed in a LokAdalat. If a
matter pending in the court of law is referred to the LokAdalat and is
settled subsequently, the court fee originally paid in the court on the
complaints/petition is also refunded back to the parties.

Final and Binding Award :
Under Section 21 of the Act, the award passed by the LokAdalats stand
final and binding. As no appeal lies to this conclusive determination, the
cases are put to rest on fi rst instance.

Maintenance of Cordial Relationships :
The main thrust of LokAdalats is on compromise between parties. While
conducting the proceedings, a LokAdalat acts as a conciliator and not as
an arbitrator. Its role is to persuade the parties to reach a solution and help
in reconciling their contesting d ifferences. This encourages consensual
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relations between parties can be retained. Hence, it is a very healthy way
of dispute resolution.

Areas for Improvement Within Lok Adalats :
Some areas of improvement whereby the functioning of LokAdalats can
be improved are as follows:

Enforceability lies with Civil Court :
The awards passed by the LokAdalats are deemed equivalent to decrees of
the civil court. Although, the enforcement of the se decrees cannot be
carried out by the LokAdalats. This function rests with the civil courts;
therefore the parties need to apply for enforcement to execute the award. It
is the author‘s recommendation that these powers to enforce needs to be
provided to the LokAdalats itself to ensure that the decisions passed are
executed to their finality.

Lack of Criminal Jurisdiction :
The jurisdiction of LokAdalats with respect to criminal disputes is limited
to offences which are compoundable under law. This removes crimes such
as that of petty theft other small crimes from the purview of LokAdalats.
Hence, this should be reviewed to bring petty crimes within the purview of
LokAdalats.

State Authority Level:
The LokAdalat's benches would be constituted by the Memb er Secretary
of the State Legal Services Authority. Each bench would comprise of a
sitting or retired judicial officer or sitting or retired judge of the High
Court and any one or both of - a member from the legal profession; a social
worker interested in t he implementation of legal services programs or
schemes and engaged in the upliftment of the weaker sections.

At High Court Level:
The LokAdalat's benches would be constituted by The Secretary Of The
High Court Legel Services Committee with each bench c omprising of a
sitting or retired judge of the High Court and any one or both of - a
member from the legal profession; a social worker interested in the
implementation of legal services programs or schemes and engaged in the
upliftment of the weaker section s.

At District Level:
The LokAdalat's benches would be constituted by The Secretary of the
District Legal Services Authority. Each bench comprising of a sitting or
retired judicial officer and any one or both of either a member from the
legal profession; and/or a social worker interested in programs and
engaged in the upliftment of the weaker sections or a person engaged in
Para-legal activities of the area, preferably a woman.


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At Taluk Level:
The LokAdalat's benches would be constituted by the Secretary of the
Taluk Legal Services Committee, each bench comprising of a sitting or
retired judicial officer and any one or both of either a member from the
legal profession; and/or a social worker engaged in the upliftment of the
weaker sections and interested in the implementation of legal services
schemes or programs or a person engaged in Para -legal activities of the
area, preferably a woman.

National LokAdalat :
National Level LokAdalats are held for at regular intervals where on a
single da y LokAdalats are held throughout the country, in all the courts
right from the Taluk Levels to the Supreme Court where a huge number of
cases are disposed of.

Permanent LokAdalat :
Section 22 -B of The Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 enables the
organization of the Permanent LokAdalat. Permanent LokAdalats have
been set up as permanent bodies with two members and a chairman for
providing a compulsory pre -litigation mechanism for conciliation and
settlement of cases relating to Public Utility Services like postal, transport,
telegraph, etc. The Permanent LokAdalat gets jurisdiction to decide the
dispute, in case the parties fail to reach a settlement, provided, the dispute
does not relate to any offense.

6.9 SUMMARY
This lesson explores the structure and functions of judicial system of
India. The Indian judicial system follows the common law system based
on recorded judicial precedents as inherited from the British colonial
legacy. The court system of India comprises the Supreme Court of India,
the Hi gh Courts and subordinate courts at district, municipal and village
levels.

6.10 KEYWORDS
 Judiciary: The branch of authority in a country which is concerned
with legal system.
 Lok Adalat: Alternative dispute resolution mechanism in India.
 Munsif Court: Handles minor civil cases on District level.
 Civil Case : Civil Law deals with Property, Money, Housing, Divorce,
custody of a child in the event of divorce etc.
 Criminal case: Deal with serious crimes such as murder, rapes, arson ,
robbery, assault etc.

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6.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS.
Descriptive:
i) Write a note on power and functions of judiciary.
ii) Explain the structure and benefits of Lokadalat.
iii) Elaborate structure of Indian judiciary in detail.
iv) Outline the hierarchy of civil and criminal courts in India.

MCQs:

i) Highest judicial forum and final court of appeal under the
Constitution of India.
A. Supreme Court.
B. High Court.
C. Civil Court.
D. Lokadalt.

ii) CPC stands for ______
A. Code of Civil Protection.
B. Code of Civil Procedure.
C. Common code of Civil Procedure.
D. Code of Critical Procedure.

iii) LokAdalats stands as a unique contribution of the Indian legal system
originating from _______principles.
A. Gandhian.
B. Karl Marks.
C. Robert Owen.
D. Robert Alameda.

6.12 REFERENCES
 Singh, M. P, V. N. Shukla's Constitution of India (Eastern Book
Company. Lucknow, 2012).
 Takwani, C. K. Civil Procedure (Eastern Book Company. Lucknow,
2009). Pillai, K. N.
 Chandrasekhara, R. V. Kelkar's Criminal Procedure (Eastern Book
Company. Lucknow, 2008).


*****
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7

PLANNING FOR RURAL
DEVELOPMENT -I

Unit structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Key Concepts
7.4 Definition (Concept) of Planning
7.5 Features of Planning
7.6 Types of Planning.
7.7 Importance of Planning.
7.8 District Planning Machinery
7.9 Design and Functions of District Planning Machinery
7.10 Post 1992 Reforms in District Planning Machinery
7.11 Summary
7.12 Keywords
7.13 Unit End Questions
7.14 References

7.1 INTRODUCTION
As far as India‘s planning is concern, we cannot forget the contribution of
Sir M Visvesvaraya. He was also a great believer in economic planning. In
1934, he authored a book titled 'A Planned Economy for India', which
would make him the father of the Planning Commission. He published
numerous others on village industrialization, nation building and
unemployment. After independence initially The National Plan ning
Committee was being headed by Sir M Visvesvaraya, who however was
urged to step down and let former PM Nehru take the spot. Renowned
scientist MeghanadSaha argued that planning was a mixture of science and
politics, but Visvesvaraya stepped down and N ehru went on to head
National Planning Committee. Nearly in last seventy years of our own
planning there were big scope but still we call India is a developing nation.
India has vast natural and human resources. However, comparing
developed nations our na tional production and consumption is very low.
Even today, our country's per capita income is very low. Therefore,
balanced development of the country could not take place. Unemployment
and semi -unemployment are prevailing in the country. While our progres s
in the world today is satisfactory, we cannot supply all the people we need.
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seen today. When all these problems are solved, it is seen as a coordinated
approach to development is required. The nation should be able to achieve
rapid and balanced development and the main problems should be
reduced.

7.2. OBJECTIVES
1) To know the concept of planning.
2) To understand the importance of planning in countries development.
3) To understand the changing nature of the planning process in India.
4) To understand the working method of the District Planning Machinery
on local level.
6) To know the changes on District Planning Machinery after 1992.

7.3 KEY CONCEPTS:
Planning: Detailed programme of future courses of action .
District Planning :Detailed programme of future courses of action for
District.
Planning Commission :Planning agency of the governmentfor
formulationof five -year plans.

7.4. DEFINITION (CONCEPT) OF PLANNING:
Planning has become universal in the 20th century. The views expressed
by economists are as follows:

1) According to Dr. Harris, " Planning is the distribution of resources
for the purposes set by the planning authorities in terms of income
and cost."

2) According to Mrs. Yutan, "In economic planning, the market system
is not allowed to function freely.

3) According to Robbins, Planning means working and choosing with a
specific purpose, promise. Choice is the essence of economic action. "

4) According to H.D. Dickinson , "Financial planning is about making
important decisions in the economy. All decisions about what and how
much to produce, how, where and when to produce, to whom to
distribute the product are made by a certain meeting after careful and
comprehensive sur vey of the economy as a whole." .

5) According to the Planning Board of India, "Economic planning is a
way of matching and utilizing resources for the greater good in the
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As per the above all definition it is observed that, planning has two major
components.

That is, i) A sequence of expected objectives to be pursued and
ii) Knowledge of available tools and its distribution.

7.5 FEATURES OF PLANNING
The following features of planning can be deduced from the above
definition of planning.

I) Economic survey : to survey the entire economy for which it is planned,
the total land and other natural resources of the country, national growth
rate, population and population growth rate, agriculture, industry etc. and
their condition, Planning is impossible without a comprehensive overview
of financial institutions, trade, transportation, etc.

II) Determinate Authority : A definite planner The officer must be an
institution. Which the central body will plan for the whole country. The
Planning Board of India is one such body.

III) Defined Social Ends : When planning any economy or country,
planning cannot be done unless the stated goals are in sight as stated by
the Planning Board of India. If the objective is clear, it is possible for the
planning board to devise the closest way to achieve it. E.g. Some of the
objectives that can be said about India are rapid economic development,
elimination of unemployment, eradication of poverty.

IV) Organizing Resources : Based o n financial survey It is decided how
the resources to be demonstrated can be used for the given objectives in
the most economical and efficient manner. Real resources are matched.
Capital in the form of money is considered to bring together resources.

V) Conscious Choice of Priorities : Objectives or simple ones is infinite.
Considering the resources, it is consciously decided which achievement to
take. E.g. It is not possible to start all modern industries in India at once.
So first of all, sorting out the basics, some capital and other industries,
consumer goods industries, etc. is part of the planning.

VI) Decision of Production : In an unplanned economy, individual
producers make decisions about what to produce, how much to do, etc.
with the help of a ma rket system. In a planned economy, however, this
decision is made by the central authority. Deciding what quantity to
produce and where to take it by looking at the order means that the
decision has to be made by using machinery and a little labor, by
comb ination of technique or by intermediate technique.
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VII) Considering Distribution : What to produce and Similarly, it is
decided how to distribute it. Of course, it is up to the planners to decide
how to make this product popular among the people.

VIII) Time -bound Program : For the fulfillment of the set objectives, that
is, to maximize the fulfillment of the resources that are produced in order.
Planners for each objective

Takes planned periods, E.g. Five years, ten years means every event needs
timeline ss. Determining the duration is the last feature of planning.
As such, planning means deciding in advance how to proceed for
development with the whole economy in mind.

The features of planning based on democratic principles in India are
as follows :
I) In India's democratic planning; there are various sectors like private
sector, public sector, co -operative sector. These holistic areas are
considered in the planning.
II) As there are different sectors of industry, production decisions are
taken in a dec entralized manner.
III) Attempts are made to control certain items in the market. Most
planners try to control the cost of living.
IV) Public participation was necessary in the development of the country
after independence. As well as expectations of the people living in
exile had increased after independence. Therefore, the views of the
people, their suggestions and public participation are taken into
account in Indian planning.
V) When India became independent, India's economic condition was very
backw ard. One would think that continuous treatment like planning
would be beneficial for growing population, backward farming,
outdated production techniques, poverty, ignorance etc.

7.6 TYPES OF PLANNING
7.6.1 CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED PLANNING:

Cent ralized planning :
Under centralized planning, the entire planning process is under a central
planning authority. The authority formulates a central plan, fixes
objectives, targets, and priorities for every sector of the economy. The
principle problems of the economy – what and how much to produce, how
and for whom to be produced etc., are decided by this authority. The entire
planning process is based on bureaucratic control and regulation.
Naturally, such planning is rigid. There is no economic freedom an d all
economic activities are directed from above.
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Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision
making is in a few hands. All the important decision and actions at the
lower level, all subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to the
approval of top management. According to Allen, ―Centralization‖ is the
systematic and consistent reservation of authority at central points in the
organization.

Decentralized planning. ( Multi -level planning) :
On the other hand, decentr alized planning refers to the execution of the
plan from the grass roots. Under it, a plan is formulated by the central
planning authority in consultation with the different administrative units of
the country. The central plan incorporates plans under the central schemes,
and plans for the states under a federal set -up. The state plans incorporate
district and village level plans. Under decentralized planning, prices of
goods and services are determined by the market mechanism despite
government control an d regulation in certain fields of economic activity.
UNITS INVOLVED IN
PLANNING National Planning Commission State Planning Commission District Planning Committee District Panchayats Municipal Corporations Block Panchayats Municipality Gram Panchayats Town Panchayats
Framework of Decentralized planning ( multi -level planning) in India
is as follows:

1. National level Planning: at the national level the Planning Commission
was established in 1950. It is the central as well as the supreme authority
in the sphere of planning. Take the tasks determining the plan priorities
and broad allocation of resources to the different sectors. It also
undertakes planning for strategic c the national development council
established in 1953, as a link between the union and the state
commodities‘, services required by the whole country and international
transactions. It is also interested responsi bility of formulation and
implementing the programs related with the betterment of the standard of
living of the people.
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2. Interstate level: the national development council established in 1953,
the link between the Union and the states. The issues invol ving uniform
policy for the whole country are decided by the union government, the
Planning Commission and the state governments. The five year plans
prepared by the Planning Commission are discussed and ratified by the
national development council

3. State level Planning: most states have evolved their planning
machinery during last decades. They prepare state plans within the
framework of the 5 year plans. The state level planning is more concerned
with such activities as agriculture and allied activities and infrastructu re
provision which include irrigation, power, road, transport and provision of
social services.

4. District level Planning : district level planning relates to the preparation
of the plans for the development of district, minor and medicine irrigation
schemes, small scale industries, agriculture and animal husbandry,
provision of social services within the district.

Definitions & Features of multi -level planning :

Definitions :
1. "Planning that is done at more than one level is called multi -level
planning ."
2. "The planning process in which decision -making and implementation
powers are vested in each level of the system is called multi -level
planning."
3. Multi -level planning is communicative. So centralized planning is of a
prescriptive nature.

Features of Indian Multi Level Planning:
1) Multi -Level planning is planning done on more than one level. In
India, the decision -making process of planning is carried out at the
national, state and district levels. The features of Indian planning can
be summarized as follows
2) Planning at more than one level : The word 'multiple' in multi -level
planning has many meanings, meaning that planning in India is not
done at the central level only. So it is also done at the state, district
level. At central, sta te and district level An independent mechanism of
planning exists.
3) India methods planning : According to Western democratic
ideology, planning and dictatorship are two sides of the same coin. In
India, there is a golden mean between planning and democracy.
Democratic decentralization in the planning process through multi -
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4) Decentralized planning : Mixed and beautiful decentralized planning
is called multi -level planning. This is because in this process, the
power to make planning decisions is d ecentralized. Planning systems
set up at various levels are empowered to make their own planning
and development decisions.
5) Participatory Planning : In multi -level planning, people from all
walks of life are involved in the planning process. Local to loc al
people Being aware of the issues, they are aware of which issues to
prioritize in terms of development and can be used in more effective
planning.
6) Regional Planning : Regional planning is a basic concept of multi -
level planning. Geographical expansion of areas to be undertaken for
effective planning should be limited. The planning board has given an
area of 9000 sq. Km to a development group. Should not exceed, it is
recommended. The concept of regional planning in India was
gradually evolving. If th e area of planning is limited, more effective
planning can be done.
7) Planning through exchange of views : Multi -level planning is
resolved through discussions with the leadership at national, regional
and local levels and other influential groups.

7.6.2. Perspective Planning and Annual Planning:

Perspective planning :
Perspective planning refers to long -term planning in which long range
targets are set in advance for a period of 15, 20, or 25 years. A perspective
plan, however, does not imply one plan for the entire period of 15 or 20
years. In reality, the broader objectives and targets are to be achieved
within the specified period of time by dividing the perspective plan into
several short -period plans of 4, 5 or 6 years.

Annual planning:
An annua l plan is an operational plan that indicates specific goals and
objectives for a particular program or programs within a specific
timeframe (usually one year). It often includes a detailed plan outlining
which activities will be accomplished, by when and b y whom. Not only
this, a five year plan is further broken up into annual plans so that each
annual plan fits into the broad framework of the five -year plan. Plans of
either kind are further divided into regional and sectorial plans. Regional
plans pertain to regions, districts and localities and sectorial plans pertain
to plans for agriculture, industry, foreign trade etc.

The need for multi -level planning:
For a continental country like India, multi -level planning is not only
necessary but desirable. In a continental country like India, the problems
and needs of different geographical regions are different. Therefore, the
problems of development and progress of the country cannot be solved by
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necessary in theory as well as in practice. The requirements for multi -level
planning are as follows.

1) Decentralization of Rights:
After India adopted a democratic system of government, decentralization
of power and rights has been done through Panchayat Raj Institutions and
multi -level planning formula has been adopted for economic and planning
matters. Because the concept of economi c democracy can be achieved
through multi -level planning.

2) Easy to collect and analyze information :
Success Scheme Accurate information is required. For this, the
government system collects various types of information and statistics,
based on that info rmation and statistics, the direction and objectives and
programs of planning are determined. But if the available information is
wrong, the statistics are fraudulent, then the decisions made on their basis
are also wrong. In a geographically diverse count ry like India, collecting
information and statistics is extremely difficult and costly. Even so,
accurate information

Not sure if it would be collected, the two appeared in the five -year plan.
After 1960, decentralized planning was adopted and the necessa ry
information and statistics were collected with the participation of local
people. As a result, more accurate and less costly information and statistics
became available.

3) People's participation in the planning process :
Democratic decentralization to the Panchayat Raj system . It is called.
Responsibility for development programs was delegated to local
leadership at village, development group and district level. So local to
local leadership

They also have the ability to determine how the area should be developed,
what programs should be prioritized, and how much money should be
spent on which programs, as they have a more accurate knowledge of the
problems and the area. From this came the idea of decentralized planning.

4) Adequate use of local resou rces:
Local leadership is better aware of locally available resources and
manpower than national level planners. Their knowledge can be leveraged
in the planning process and development can be accelerated by making
more efficient use of resources.

5) Red ucing regional imbalances :
Development imbalances are a serious problem in India. For example,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Kerala are developed states. Some states
like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam etc. are backward. Democratic
decentralization can reduce regional imbalances through multi -level
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7.7 IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
All countries in the world need planning. The world is rich or poor. Be it
capitalist or socialist or mixed economy or even open economy. At
present, planning has become a necessity for every country. Today is the
age of planning. Importance of planning is as follows.

1) Elimination of defects in the capitalist economy : Planning is required
to eliminate the defects in the capitalist economy such as economic
inequality, fina ncial monopoly, exploitation of consumers etc. Because in
planning, the government has control over production and distribution.

2) Balanced Development : In a developing economy, there is scope for
development of only a few regions and industries. Investm ents are made in
areas where profits are made. Other regions do not develop as a result. So
there is a possibility of unbalanced development. But balanced
development can be achieved through planning by eliminating such
imbalances.

3) Proper use of resour ces: The natural resources of developing countries
are not used adequately. As a result, there is no rapid growth (of the
economy). Planning is needed for the rapid development of a developing
economy.

4) Increase in employment : Unemployment is high in de veloping
countries. Planning is required to increase employment by setting up new
industries.

5) Economic Stability : In developing countries, economic stability is
sought through job creation and employment is created through planning.

6) Population growth : In developing countries the problem of population
growth is very serious. Due to overpopulation, there is a constant shortage
of goods and services. There is a constant imbalance between demand and
supply. Therefore, planning is required to increas e the production of
various commodities as well as their equitable distribution.

7.8 DESIGN AND FUNCTIONS OF DISTRICT PLANNING MACHINERY
District is the basic regional component of the administrative system of
India. In the multi -level planning process, the planning that is done for the
development of the district is called district planning. Explaining the
concept of district planning, the planning board had said that "district
planning is the process of achieving community development in the
district by making adequate use of the natural resources and manpower
available in the regional area of the district." And manpower is reviewed.
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priorities are determined. Resources are matched and development
objectives are sought to be achieved within the stipulated period.
Decisions regarding the planning and development process of the district
are taken by the people's representatives and its administrative machinery.
Thus in the planning pro cess at the district level both decision making and
execution of decisions are done.

District planning is in fact the planning of the talukas of the district. That
is, a development plan is prepared in all the talukas which are sub -
components of the distr ict and the overall planning for the development of
all the talukas is called district planning.

The developmental needs of the entire district are considered and
coordination is established in the development plan of the talukas
accordingly. A District P lanning Cell has been set up in each district to
carry out this responsibility. This department is a group of experts working
under the guidance of the District Planning Officer. It includes
economists, statisticians and geographers. This department prepar es the
development plan of the taluka in collaboration with the group
development officers of the PanchayatSamiti. District development plans
based on all taluka development plans

The plan is prepared and submitted to the District Planning Committee.

Designdistrict Planning Committee :


Composition of District Planning Committee:
The DPC is generally composed of elected members of the local bodies
within the district, both rural and urban, as well as some nominated
members. The number of members varies with the population size of the
districts. The ratio of members from Panchayats and ULBs is based on the
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ratio in which the population of the district is divided between rural and
urban areas. The District Planning Committee will have a minimum of 30
members and a maximum of 50 members.30 members for a district with a
population of up to 20 lakhs. 40 members for a district with a population
of 20 to 30 lakhs. For a district with a population of over 30 lakhs, there
will be 50 members.

The DPCs are to have at least four -fifths elected members as per Article
243 ZD. Members should be el ected by, and from amongst, the elected
members of the Panchayat at the district level and of the Municipalities in
the district in proportion to the ratio between the population of the rural
areas and of the urban areas in the district. The actual pattern , however,
varies across states. Nominated members usually represent the State &
Central Government agencies (including line departments). A larger
proportion of nominated members could imply greater interference and
control in DPC functioning by the State and Central administration. This
in effect erodes the participative nature of the Committee, reducing it to
just another arm of the State administration. It is therefore not desirable
that the proportion of nominated members increase beyond the
constituti onally stipulated limit.

District Planning Committee consisted of:
The district planning committee are generally headed by the designated
minister of the district as chairman and included
1. All elected members of the LokSabha and the legislative assembly,
elected from the district.
2. All members of the RajyaSabha and this state legislative council
residing in the district.
3. The president and chairman of 3 subject committees of ZilaParishad;
as well as two Sabapathy of the PanchayatSamiti within this district t o
represent the Panchayat Raj.
4. Representative of the municipal corporations and municipal council in
the district:
5. Representative of the district cooperative bank, the lead bank for the
district, the land Development Bank, the regional development
corporat ions, the Maharashtra state khadi and village industries board
etc.
6. Officials such as the divisional commissioner who is the vice for
mission object counselling, the chief executive officer of
ZilaParishadand the collector of the district. The collector is the
member secretary of the district planning committee and is assisted by
district planning officer
7. Thirteen non official members nominated by government.

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The main duties and function of District Planning Office are as
follows :
1. To convene meetings of the District Planning Boards at least once in
two months and to pursue the recommendations of such meetings with
the concerned Departments of the State Government and other
agencies;
2. To prepare District Annual Plans for the districts and to place the
same before the District Planning Boards for consideration before
submission to Government;
3. To monitor the implementation of various plan schemes in the
districts in general, to identify the limiting factors in the
implementation of plan schemes and to place th e matter before the
District Planning Boards and State Government with specific
suggestions for ensuring speedy and efficient implementation of plan
schemes;
4. To compile and consolidate quarterly progress reports of district -level
plan schemes hitherto done by the District Statistical Officers, to place
such consolidated reports before the District Planning Boards for
review and then to finalise the consolidated quarterly progress reports
of such district -level plan schemes for submission to Government in
the month following each quarter. Quarterly progress reports may be
obtained from the District Heads of Development Departments, who
may also furnish such other information and materials as may be
necessary for compilation of the reports;
5. To take up such oth er activities as may be assigned to them from time
to time by the District Planning Boards or by the Government;
6. To perform all other functions as assigned to them by Government;
and
7. To ensure co -ordination among all the District heads of Development
Depar tments in the formulation and implementation of plan schemes.

7.10 POST 1992 REFORMS IN DISTRICT PLANNING MACHINERY
In the 1950s and 1960s, India had centralized planning. The planning
mechanism was monolithic. The Planning Board was established on
March 15, 1950. The first two five -year plans were prepared only at the
central level. The rulers later realized that the s tates should be involved in
the planning decision -making process. The National Development Council
was established on 12 August 1950 for this purpose. The development
needs of different states of the country are different. With this in mind, the
third Five Year Plan was divided into Central Plan and State Plans. Since
the needs of each state are different, it was decided that the needs of the
states should be prepared by the states themselves. Accordingly, he
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Accordingly, a state level planning system was established in 1964 and
two tier planning was introduced instead of one tier planning. This concept
led to the need for multi -level planning, which led to a decentralized or
multi -level planning process.

During Prime Minister P.V. NarasimhaRao's tenure, in September 1991,
he introduced the Constitution Amendment Bill in the LokSabha. The bill
was passed by the LokSabha on December 22, 1992, and by the
RajyaSabha on December 22, 1992. The law cam e into force on April 24,
1993. Article 243 to Article 243 (o) of the Panchayat Raj system is
provided in Article 243 of the Constitution of India. As per this Act, the
11th Appendix has been added to the Indian Parliament. Accordingly,
planning has been d one at village, taluka and district level.

1) Three -tier Panchayat Raj : As per the 73rd Amendment, every
component in the state planning has been done for rural development
at taluka and district level. Panchayat Raj Institutions have been
formed.
2) Gram Sabha : At the village level, Gram Sabha has been formed in
1992 + and the village plans and programs have been planned. Section
243 (a) provides for the formation and powers of the Gram Sabha.
3) Structure of Panchayats : Panchayats have been establishe d in
Section 243 (a) to facilitate and facilitate the planning of rural
development. Gram Panchayats are recognized as the lowest level at
the village level. This is the planning of the whole village and the area
It is done by the Gram Panchayat.
4) Reser vation system : As per 243 (d) of the Constitution of India, for
the overall development of the rural community in the Panchayat
State institutions, provision has been made to reserve seats for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Classes in
proportion to the population.

As per the 73rd Amendment, the responsibility of district planning and
development was handed over to Panchayat Raj Institutions. Accordingly,
District Planning and Development Committees were dismissed in the
year 2000. In their place, a district planning committee with a majority of
people's representatives has been set up. To consolidate the plans prepared
by the Panchayats and Municipalities of the district and to prepare a
development plan for the entire district

7.11 SUMMAR Y
The Planning Board was established on 15th March 1950 in post -
independence India. The planning process was implemented at national,
inter-state, state and district levels with emphasis on democratic
decentralization. By adopting a multi -level planning process, the district munotes.in

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planning machinery was created in the same way as the national planning
and state planning machinery.

The system at every level was given autonomy, freedom of decision and
adequate financial support. The district is the basic regional component of
the administrative machinery in India. Similarly, the district planning
system has been included in the development process.

7.12 KEYWORDS
Decentralization,
Gram Sabha,
Amendment

7.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Descriptive:
1. Explain the concept and various types of Indian planning.
2. Explain the features of multi -level planning.
3. Write notes
i) Formation of District Planning Committee.
ii) Planning for rural development.

MCQs:
i) The Planning Commission was established in the year
a) 1947.
b) 1948.
c) 1950.
d) 1965.

ii) Planning Commission was scrapped on
a) 2015.
b) 2014.
c) 2017.
d) 2012.

iii) The father of Indian planning is
a) Jawaharlal Nehru.
b) Mahatma Gandhi.
c) B.R. Ambedkar.
d) M. Vishveshshwariah.

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7.14 REFERENCES
 Government of India second administrative reforms commission
fifteenth report state and district administration April 2009.
 status and functioning of district planning committees in India by
manojrai .

*****

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8

PLANNING FOR RURAL
DEVELOPMENT -II

Unit Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Key Concepts
8.4 Post 1992 Reforms in District Planning Machinery
8.5 Need of People Participation in Rural Planning
8.6 Importance of Public Participation
8.7 Role of Public Participation and Ngos
8.8 Work Done by Ngos
8.9 Limitations of Work of Ngos
8.10 Reasons for Public Participation Depression
8.11 Measures to Increase Public Participation
8.12 Summary
8.13 Keywords
8.14 Unit End Questions
8.15 References

8.1. INTRODUCTION
It is now widely accepted that public participation is very important in a
democracy. Political scientists like Amanda had to use the term
Participation Culture. It means the meaningful participation of the people
in the political process is essential for democracy. We get to see such kind
of meaningful participation in the Western world. There is a great deal of
political communication between the rulers and the people. This is not the
case in developing countries. In thi s case, Amanda uses the term subject
culture. In such a country, many tools of political communication have
been developed. But most people are not aware of it. Most of population in
our country has traditional approach as far as politics is concern. The
people of that country prefer to go after a leader rather than take the
initiative and do something. Naturally, this does not mean public
participation. Literacy is low. There is a huge gap between the people and
the government. According to Amanda, rulers have a different culture.

The government and the administration need to make an effort to involve
the people of the developing world in the political process to the
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development process. Otherwise only government or administrative
programs will be a one way process.

8.2 OBJECTIVES
1) To know the post 1992 reforms in district planning machinery.
2) To understand the importance of public participation in rural
development planning.
3) To study the measures to increase the barriers to public participation.
4) To study the role of NGOs in the process of rural development.
5) To review the work being done by NGOs.

8.3 KEY CONCEPTS
Public participation: Inclusion of the public in the activities.
Reforms: Make changes in in order to improve it.
NGOs: Non-Government Organization.

8.4 POST 1992 REFORMS IN DISTRICT PLANNING MACHINERY
8.4.1 Introduction:
In the 1950s and 1960s, India had centralized planning. The planning
mechanism was monolithic. The Planning Board was established on
March 15, 1950. The first two five -year plans were prepared only at the
central level. The rulers later realized that the states should be involved in
the planning decision -making process. The National Development Council
was established on 12 August 1950 for this purpose. The development
needs of different states of the country are different. With this in mind, the
third Five Year Plan was divided into Central Plan and State Plans. Since
the needs of each state are differe nt, it was decided that the needs of the
states should be prepared by the states themselves. Accordingly, he
directed the state governments to set up a planning mechanism.
Accordingly, a state level planning system was established in 1964 and
two tier plan ning was introduced instead of one tier planning. This concept
led to the need for multi -level planning, which led to a decentralized or
multi -level planning process.

During Prime Minister P.V. NarasimhaRao's tenure, in September 1991,
he introduced the Constitution Amendment Bill in the LokSabha. The bill
was passed by the LokSabha on December 22, 1992, and by the
RajyaSabha on December 22, 1992. The law came into forc e on April 24,
1993. Article 243 to Article 243 (o) of the Panchayat Raj system is
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11th Appendix has been added to the Indian Parliament. Accordingly,
planning has been done at vill age, taluka and district level.
8.4.2.73rd Constitutional Amendment

1) Three -tier Panchayat Raj : As per the 73rd Amendment, every
component in the state planning has been done for rural development at
taluka and district level. Panchayat Raj Institutions have been formed.

2) Gram Sabha : At the village level, Gram Sabha has been formed in
1992 + and the village plans and programs have been planned. Section 243
(a) provides for the formation and powers of the Gram Sabha.

3) Structure of Panchayats : Panchay ats have been established in Section
243 (a) to facilitate and facilitate the planning of rural development. Gram
Panchayats are recognized as the lowest level at the village level. This is
the planning of the whole village and the area
It is done by the G ram Panchayat.

4) Reservation system : As per 243 (d) of the Constitution of India, for the
overall development of the rural community in the Panchayat State
institutions, provision has been made to reserve seats for Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Classes in proportion to the
population.

As per the 73rd Amendment, the responsibility of district planning and
development was handed over to Panchayat Raj Institutions. Accordingly,
District Planning and Development Committees were dismissed in the
year 2000. In their place, a district planning committee with a majority of
people's representatives has been set up. To consolidate the plans prepared
by the Panchayats and Municipalities of the district and to prepare a
development plan for the enti re district.

8.4.3 Panchayat level Planning:
The directive principles of state policy mention the village Panchayat
which is an elected body at village level. Village, here, roughly
corresponds to a revenue village (or a group of revenue villages). The
Panchayati Raj System involves a three -tier structure:
 Village -level
 Block -level
 District level.

The first tier at village level is commonly known as Gram Panchayat
(village assembl y), the second tier at block -level as PanchayatSamiti and
the third tier at district -level as ZilaParishad.

According to the provisions of the Panchayats Act 1996 the election to the
village Panchyat is held at an interval of 5 years where there is
proportionate seat reservation for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
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Through the Constitution Amendment Act 1992 the Panchayat (also called
Gram Sabha) has been authorized to look after the preparation and
implementation of plans for economic development and social justice on
an illustrative list of 29 subjects. The respective state has been given
discretionary powers to prescribe powers and functions to the Gram Sabha
to act as an institution of self -government.

It has also been advised to constitute a District Planning Commi ttee to
consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and Municipalities and
prepare an integrated development plan for the district as a whole. It has
also been directed to constitute a State Finance Commission (SFC) to
review every five years, the financial position of Panchayats and to make
recommendations about the principle governing the distribution of
revenues between the state and the Panchayats, and determination of the
grants -in-aid to the Panchayats from the Consolidated Funds of the State.

The implementation of the plan at the Panchayat -level is the responsibility
of the Village Development Officer (VDO) and the secretary and is
supervised by the Gram Sabha which is headed by the Gram Pradhan.
Under the existing provisions, funds for the Gra m Sabha (Village
Panchayat) are directly being allocated from the center to execute rural
development programmes like IRDP, JRY etc.

The Panchayat has also been entrusted with the responsibility for the
promotion of agriculture, rural industries, provisio n of medical relief,
maternity, women and child welfare, maintaining common grazing
grounds, village roads, tanks, wells, sanitation and execution of other
socio -economic programmes.

In some places, they are also authorized to supervise primary education
and collect land revenue. Presently, Gram Panchayats are involved in the
identification of beneficiaries in antipoverty programmes.

The new status accorded to the Panchayats by the Constitution has raised
high hopes and expectations among the elected repr esentatives and the
rural folk at large. But owing to the political complexions of the
governments in the Indian states, the reluctance of the state -level political
and administrative functionaries to part with power and authority, and
some genuine financi al and economic difficulties, the progress in
operation has been somewhat slow and halting.

It has been found that elected representatives of Panchayat Raj Institutions
are largely unaware of the political and economic dimensions of
development issues and lack planning and managerial skills. This is
particularly true of women elected representatives, who are performing
their duties under some severe constraints of different kinds.


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8.5 NEED OF PEOPLE PARTICIPATION IN RURAL PLANNING
The people in genera l comprise the target population, the clientele, the
beneficiaries, the men and women, the old and the young, the formal and
informal leaders in the community, people of different segments and strata
of the community, depending upon the specific developmen t programs and
activities.

People's participation, in a broader sense, means their total involvement
with development agencies in deciding the programs and activities, fixing
up of priorities, taking initiative and carrying out the projects as partners
by the contribution of their ideas, interest, material, money, labour and
time. The scope of people's participation depends upon the nature of the
activity, the duration of its execution, its technical nature, the clientele it
covers, whether it is an indiv idual project or concerns the total or some
segments of the community, its location, the amount of funds it involves
and, above all, what the development agency stipulates about the kind of
participation at different stages of activity and the quantity and quality of
participation it expects from the people.

Rural development programs comprise: agriculture, animal husbandry,
cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering consisting of minor
irrigation, roads, buildings, health and sanitation including f amily welfare,
family planning, women's welfare, child care and nutrition, education
including adult -education/social education and adult literacy, youth
welfare and community organization. In each of these areas of
development, there are several programs, schemes and activities which are
additive, expanding and tapering off, covering the total community, some
segments, or specific target populations such as small and marginal
farmers, artisans, women and, in general, people designated as weaker
sections —the people below the poverty line. The programs or the
activities, by their nature, determine or limit the scope, shape and manner
of people's participation.

8.5.1 The development programs could be classified into three broad
categories :

1. Individual -based where -in the target or the beneficiary is the individual
and the participation is restricted to the individual (e.g. agriculture,
livestock, poultry, family planning, nutrition, adult literary)

2. Community based the projects or progr ams that cover the total
community or some segments of the community, e.g. irrigation, plant
protection, contour bunding, roads, buildings, schools, community centers,
midday meal programs, environmental sanitation and activities of
community —wide nature) and
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3. Individual -cum-community based programs. Some of the programs
mentioned above, fall both under individual and community categories.
Such programs cannot be successfully initiated and accomplished without
the response and support from the individua ls and the community at large.
In view of the nature of rural development programs, most of them
initiated by the development agencies, the participation of people could be
as diverse as follows: — responding to the programmer, accepting the
idea, the proc ess and adopting the technology and innovations. —
Extending moral support — Participation in decision making, cooperating
in implementation — Contribution of money, material and labour —
Taking initiative, mobilizing people and resources, and — Assuming
leadership and ownership of projects People's participation in rural
development is an educational process. It is a training for development
involving people in the projects, making them their own. It is to create a
sense of awareness, a sense of participat ion, a sense of belonging, a sense
of possession and ownership. It is to develop self -reliance, self -
confidence, competence and managerial capacity. It is to train people to
take initiative, accomplish and sustain their activities. It is to build up and
re-invigorate communities and generate social action. It is to enable people
to discover their strength, increase their aspiration level, mobilize and
channelize their resources tor productive purposes. Participation is
bringing people to the core from the p eriphery, to activeness from
passiveness, and to be thinkers, decision makers, doers and implementers
from acceptors, In the ultimate sense, the whole purpose and process of
people's participation is Human Resource Development (HRD) —the
development of huma n and inner material resources, with stimulus and
support external to the community.

8.5.2. Why Should People Participate? :
There is a body of philosophy and a set of assumptions behind people's
participation in rural development. We may briefly look into them.

1. The whole philosophy of rural development is based on one very simple
and apparent assumption that the government machinery, however, big
and efficient it might be, is grossly inadequate by itself to achieve the
economic and social revolution needed for ensuring a better and richer life
for the vast masses of humanity living in the rural areas. The rural
development personnel were to function merely as 'catalytic agents'. The
idea was that programs started as a government program with people's
participation should gradually and eventually shape itself into a people's
program with government's participation.

2. Commun ities can develop their own capacity to deal with their
problems, (we assume that people do want and can change).

3. People participate in giving direction to social change in their
communities. Change which is brought about by sharing of an effort and
social participation, possesses democratic vitality and is also realistic.
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4. Holistic approach is better than fragmented approach, because the life of
a community is itself a whole and any attempt to tackle one aspect of the
whole is bound to affect others.

5. People must learn participative skills in democracy because, unless they
themselves share responsibilities and participate in fulfilling them, they do
not str engthen the democratic structure of their society. Democracy will
weaken, if not perish, unless the supporting institutions are created. The
basic plank of community development is the growth of the democratic
idea. Democracy does not function unless there is a decentralization of
power to be shared very widely at various levels of the social strata.

6. People need help in solving their new problems. External help provides
stimulus to inner resources of the community. Communities are like
infants who need a prop while they learn to walk. This is the rationale for
agency functioning and agency support.

7. The tendency of sub -groups, developing themselves as separate entities
inside a community, produces social tension and has, therefore, to be
channelized . Their energies have to be diverted to activities of common
interest.

8. The barriers that prevent active participation by individuals in the
direction of social change inhibit personal development. The process of
community development is, therefore, to be so organized that the
community functions for the good of the individual and the growth of the
community. The communities have to be so organized that they promote
the growth of individuals.

9. The process of urbanization has destroyed the feeling of belonging to a
community and it is necessary to revive this feeling in rural areas where
the masses of agricultural populations of the developing countries dwell.
The contractual relations of an urban society do not work well in a rural
society. The probl em of developing and maintaining common and shared
values, which form the basis for cohesion in a community, is made vastly
more difficult by industrialization

8.6 IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
The place of public participation in the development process is important.
Ahmednagar in Maharashtra is famous as such a drought district. Senior
social worker Shri. Anna Hazare brought about the development of
Ralegan Siddhi through public participation a nd today Ralegan Siddhi is
world famous as an ideal model of rural development. Similarly, the
Sarpanch of Hiware Bazar in Ahmednagar district, Shri. PopatraoPawar
has also achieved overall development of the village through public
participation. With the help of above real examples, the importance of
public participation in the development process can be explained as under.
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1) To create unity and consciousness in the plan : If there is no
participation and cooperation of the people in the political and
development process, and then the process seems lifeless. People‘s
participation brings these processes to life. Consciousness is obtained. It
also shows the public that there is a sense of belonging in such an event.
The people have certain expectations from the nation. If they are to be
fruitful, public participation is essential. Therefore, it is seen that such
programs have the support and approval of the people. Therefore, instead
of emphasizing that something should be imposed by the government, care
should be taken for spontaneous participation of the people.

2) Necessary for social change : Modernization of society is an important
task in a developing country. But that task is just as difficult. Therefore,
political efforts are simply insufficient. Publ ic participation is essential in
the reconstruction of the country. By doing so, the people become their
own sculptors. She can develop as she wants. Therefore, it is better to
involve the public at different stages of development. It should see the
partic ipation of the people in formulating and implementing various
development programs and plans. So the development program is second
to none. You have nothing to do with it. Senior MLA Balwantrai Mehta's
committee had also said that the main reason behind th e failure of the
social development and national expansion plan was the lack of public
participation and indifference towards the program. India's first Prime
Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, once said, "Governments can do things
at their own risk. But i f we want to reap the long -term and sustainable
fruits of development, the government's efforts and public participation
must be balanced." Things like social change in particular are not imposed
on the masses. If the people accept the changing values and accept the
modern values on their own, then the society develops and progresses in
the true sense. More about this source text Source text required for
additional translation information

3) For the welfare and prosperity of the people : The concept of
development in a developing country is taken in a broad sense and it
includes the overall development of life. Therefore, citizens get full
opportunity to participate in nation building work. It can be used for
development purposes. Public support can be g leaned mainly from local
level programs. In such a case, the government should provide financial
assistance and use the spontaneous cooperation of the people. Therefore,
the public also feels that it is participating in its own development. Public
particip ation has been given a very important place in the new concept of
rural development. Accordingly, the administration in the state of
Maharashtra has completed rural development programs like Jalaswarajya,
HagandariMuktaGaon, SantGadge Baba SwachhtaAbhiyan etc. through
public participation.

4) Increases the standard of living of the people : For the overall
development of the developing country, the standard of living of the
people is expected to increase. The late Rajiv Gandhi had said in his munotes.in

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speech when he was the Prime Minister that at the central level in the
country when rural Out of one rupee spent for the poor, only fifteen paisa
reaches the rural areas. If people's participation in rural development
increases, then the schemes and programs implemented will come to life.
If such schemes and programs are successful, people's lives will increase.

8.7 ROLE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND NGOS
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) working in rural areas for
development since the post -independence period are called NGOs in
Marathi. Their participation in the process of rural development has been
officially recognized by the Government. The responsibility of
implementing various government schemes and programs has been
entrusted to the NGOs. Voluntary organizat ions are private organizations
that operate without expecting any profit, they have no external control,
and they are exempted from income tax. Such organizations collect
donations, donations, help from the public, get grants and run their own
affairs. The members of the NGOs are voluntary participants. Activists
interested in social work are members of NGOs. Therefore, the
government makes good use of these institutions in development of the
society. So in many places such institutions and governments are seen
working in collaboration. Such NGOs are more active in developed
nations and appear to be cooperating with developing countries. Following
way NGOs play role in public participation.

1) Necessary for the protection of democracy : In a democracy, it is
necessary to decentralize power. However, the powers of the government
are increasing day by day. The question of how to safeguard individual
freedom in the face of direct and indirect pressure from the government is
on the rise in all countries. At such times, NGOs can work very effectively
to protect the civil liberties of democracy.

2) Supplementary Role : In the concept of welfare state, although the
scope of work of the state is increasing, the state is also declining. So there
are some tasks with the state jurisdiction that NGOs can do. Such works
can be a useful complement to the work of the state. E.g. Family planning
can be done by the government. In that too, NGOs can do things that the
state cannot do. In fact, NGOs can do much to promote the imp ortance of
family planning .

3) Control over centralization of power : NGOs can be used to control
the growing power of the government. Such institutions motivate the
masses to participate as much as possible and hence the masses get
political education ste p by step. Therefore, there should be
decentralization of power at the central and provincial levels. But at the
same time, this power should be given to NGOs. Thus NGOs have a dual
benefit. On the one hand there is decentralization of power, on the other
hand They increase public participation.
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4) Horizons of new work : As the scope of work of NGOs increases,
many daily complaints of the people decrease. Because the work of these
institutions reduces the workload on the government. At the same time,
since the work of NGOs is voluntary, if it works well, it attracts intelligent
people. Through all these processes, these institutions earn the growing
trust of the public. It can be used by these organizations for growing work.
By doing research on that occasio n, new horizons of work begin to be
explored. NGOs are seen working on social, economic, educational, health
transformation work.

5) Tools of Modernization and Social Transformation : In a developing
country like India, there is a great need for social cha nge and
modernization. NGOs are a very important tool for this. In India,
organizations like BharatsevakSamaj, RashtraSeva Dal, YuvakKranti Dal,
BhudanSangh have played an important role. Although his views are
different, they are working for social change in their own way.

The government can carry out development programs with the help and
cooperation of these organizations. E.g. Dissemination of literacy,
eradication of diseases, eradication of superstition, Rotary Club, Lions
Club, Giants Club, Women's Circles, Bhajani Circles, Gymnasiums etc.
Some organizations like this are seen contributing to the development
work. Universities, colleges and other educational institutions can also
undertake development programs on their own. E.g. nationally important
programs like adult education, rural reconstruction, tree planting, family
planning, blood donation are undertaken. Religious institutions such as
churches, khalsa are seen at work for education, child welfare, tribal
reform programs, and health reform.

8.8 WORK DONE BY NGOS
In developing countries, NGOs are seen performing a variety of tasks. In
this

We see NGOs working for disaster relief, development programs, health
sector, agriculture, social change, floods, droughts, earthquakes, tsunamis
and many more. The work of NGOs can be divided as follows

1) Physical works : This work includes physical works required for nation
building and development. Work to build infra -structure like road,
irrigation, industrial, electricity seeds, fertilizers, etc. These works have a
direct -indirect relationship with the public. There are not many NGOs in
India working on roads, bridges and hospitals. However, there are many
agricultural organizations. In the wake of the Green Revolution in India

The role of NGOs is huge. His research in the field of agriculture is also
important. There are many NGOs working in the field of agriculture in
Canada, Europe and Germany.
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2) Development of organizations and cultural activities : NGOs focus
on cultural activities. This incl udes fundraising, organizing events, setting
up study groups, drama, music, etc. Doctors, engineers, lawyers, traders,
etc. from the community come together and undertake cultural activities.

3) Educational Institutions : Volunteers at pre -primary, primary ,
secondary and college level The work done by the organizations is
commendable. In many places these institutes run various educational
institutes. The government should recognize their importance and provide
adequate financial assistance to these organiz ations. The functioning of
NGOs in different states is different. In the context of Maharashtra, more
than 80 colleges are run by private institutions. The work of Gokhale
Education Society, RayatShikshanSanstha, and Deccan Education Society
is noteworthy. The Education Committee of 1966 has praised the
educational work of private institutions. The government alone could not
have borne such a huge responsibility for education. NGOs have tried to
fulfill that responsibility.

4) Rural Development : Panchayat Raj is the official government body for
rural development. But at the same time, it cannot be ignored that many
NGOs are helping the government in this work. Otherwise, the entire
responsibility of rural development and Panchayat Raj would have fallen
on the government alone. In the rural areas, the network of charitable
organizations is being woven day by day. They do various things in their
own way and do other things. E.g. strive to meet the basic needs of the
rural people. To provide educational facilit ies and pay attention to
personal health. Promoting family planning work and convincing the
public of its importance.

Panchayat Raj Sanstha cannot do all these works due to various reasons.
One of them is that the government does not have enough money fo r this.
Another thing is that the government does not have the hardworking
workers required for this work.

8.9 LIMITATIONS OF WORK OF NGOS
There are also some limitations to the work of NGOs in India as follows.
1) Leadership : For the success of democracy, it has to be leadership at
all levels. There is a huge shortage of this everywhere in India. In the
pre-independence and some post -independence period, NGOs had
undertaken various forms of work. But in recent times, the servi ce-
oriented attitude of NGOs has been disappearing. It seems that
everyone is selfish and pursuing power. This tendency is causing great
loss to the developer.
2) Lack of resources : There is a lot of work that NGOs can do.
Especially in the post -independe nce period, the scope of these works
has increased a lot. But at the same time, on the other hand, there is
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Therefore, good quality, administrative skills and professional
positions cannot be decided.
3) Failure to create adequate public participation : NGOs has failed to
generate adequate public participation. In fact, these organizations
were expected to exert pressure on the political establishment.
Similarly, public grievances were expe cted to be reduced through
these organizations. But that doesn't seem to be happening. NGOs
have failed to generate adequate public participation.
4) Lack of coordination : Lack of coordination is seen in various NGOs
and members of NGOs. Many organization s appear to be working
alone. It has no effect on the policy of the government. Such solitary
NGOs lack coordination and do not have much impact on national
development.
5) Apparent attitude of work : Many times voluntary organizations are
formed only for publicity or publicity. The real and expected
objectives of these organizations are not known to the operators of
these organizations. Such organizations are run only for show and for
some people to walk in the society.
6) Lack of trained staff: In many NGOs due to lack of fund and other
resources proper and trained staff is not found. It effect on efficiency
of the NGOs.

8.10 REASONSOF DEPRESSION IN PUBLIC PARTICIPATION.
Even after 74 years of India's independence, the participation of the pe ople
in various government schemes and programs is not sufficient. Villagers
feel that the various schemes implemented by the government is duty and
task of the government. Approach of political leaders and selfish attitude
is main reason of the lack and d epression of the peoples participation in
governments development projects and campaigns it is happing at the all
tiers of the panchayati raj that is, Grampanchayat, PanchayatSamiti,
ZillaParishad, Nagarpalika, Municipal Corporation etc. Main causes of the
lack of public participation are as under.
1) Low level of political awareness : Illiteracy is high among rural
people in India. Where now Education is spreading in India. Due to
ignorance, people have less political awareness. So there is a lack of
publi c participation.
2) Consequences of capitalism : India was ruled by foreigners for a
period of 150 years. His It has had a far -reaching effect on Indian
society. This belief in the government grew stronger over time, so that
there was a feeling of resentment and later anger without feeling
affection for the gover nment. The gap between the government and
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3) Habit of paralysis : She thinks that all development, everything
should be done by the government or someone else and from that the
vices like helplessness, paralysis, depress ion, negligence are
increasing and as a result, continuity and sustainable development
process is being hampered.

Why People Fail to Participate? :
People's participation, as we have observed earlier, depends upon the
social and class structure of the rural community, the patterns and
traditions of decision -making and carrying out communal and individual
activities, the way people perceive the program s and projects initiated by
the development agencies, and people's own ability. Further, and
importantly it depends upon what the development agencies expect from
the people with respect to participation, the stipulations they make and the
manner in which the agencies mobilize, motivate, encourage and facilitate
people's participation. People's participation sounds like begging the
question. When programs are meant for people, for their benefit, welfare
and advantage, the paradox is why people fail to parti cipate. Ignorance and
lack of motivation is a factor of none or negligible participation. When
matters are of technical nature beyond the understanding and outside the
experience of the people, participation is less. People look for immediate
and tangible benefits. For instance, the problem of population explosion
and, consequently, the need for the family to participate in family planning
programs, is a distant cry for the individual or the family. The individual
does not feel the urgency of it; its immedi acy, and he or she does not
visualize the magnitude of the problem, does not see the population
explosion within the family and so does not respond. The tendency is to
accept a situation as given and live with it. Sometimes, group rivalry,
cliques, conflic ts within the community, vested interests, conflict in
values, and opposition to the programs, resistance to change and poor local
leadership are factors as to why people fail to participate. We just cannot
blame the people for their poor response or their failure to participate in
rural development activities. The responsibility lies equally on the part of
the personnel of the development agencies. Centralization of authority
weakens popular participation. Effective implementation of rural
development prog rams could not be achieved so long as decision on
matters concerning them is taken by a super agency above. A
decentralized system, which allows participatory development from
below, is necessary for a healthy society. Sometimes, you have to sacrifice
the quality in the works (roads, buildings etc.) that are accomplished
through people's participation, mostly in terms of labour and unskilled
work. We do not question the enthusiasm and good intentions of the
planners, administrators and field personnel in ru ral development but, at
the same time, we have to appreciate the fact that people are not ready to
tune in to our development programs, our expectations, and targets in
terms of their participation. Often, participation sounds like a rare
material, etherea l in nature, difficult to grasp, to have a strong grip on, or
to secure enough of it and blend it with government initiated programs.
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people's participation abound in number. It pro vided the impetus to
popular enthusiasm, channeled their ideas and energies and brought in an
element and sense of integration in rural development activities.

8.11 MEASURES TO INCREASE PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
If development programs are to succeed, the peo ple will not be indifferent.
Especially in modern times, the idea of welfare has been accepted in many
places. If the idea of democracy is to reach the masses in India, then public
participation is essential. For that, further measures have to be consi dered.
1) Changes at the organizational level : The main reason for people's
depression is financial Lack of provisions, lack of adequate officers,
inadequate civic service centers, and needs to be changed at the
organizational level.
2) Service -oriented organizations : In the western countries, service -
oriented organizations are seen striving for the cooperation and
participation of the people. These charitable organizations strengthen
democratic governance. In a country like the United States,
professiona l institutes of lawyers, engineers, teachers, doctors are seen
carrying out this work. While charitable organizations are dedicated to
their business, they will also help in social change through women's
circles, youth circles, various clubs, etc. They wil l help in increasing
the participation of citizens in development work.
3) To provide training to the citizens : to increase public participation
and speed up the development process In order to grow, people need
to be given special training on how to part icipate in development
work. Exhibitions, museums, rural dance songs, booklets, maps can
be used.

8.12 SUMMARY
Planning is of paramount importance in developing countries. In a
democratic country like India, people's participation is needed in the
planning and development process. People need to realize that
development works are for the people. At the same time, if the concept of
sustainable development is to be achieved, there is a need for public
participation in the development and planning proc ess as well as in NGOs.
In the pre -independence and post -independence period, NGOs have
always played an important role in rural development. There is no doubt
that public participation and the role of NGOs will be important in the
process of rural develop ment.



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8.13 KEYWORDS
1. Planning machinery: Resource for planning something.
2. Decentralized: controlled by several local offices or authorities.

8.14. UNIT END QUESTIONS
Descriptive:
1. Explain the reasons for public participation depression and suggest
solutions.
2. Explain the role of NGOs in rural development.
3. Explain the importance of public participation in rural development.

MCQs:
A. Full form of NGO.
1. Non-Government Organization.
2. Non Governing Organization.
3. National governing Organ.
4. National governing Orientation.
B. When did the Planning Board first come into existence in India?
a. 1970.
b. 1947.
c. 1992.
d. 1950.
C. 73rd constitutional Amendment Act passed in…
1. 1970.
2. 1947.
3. 1992.
4. 1950.

8.15 REFERENCES
1) Banga K. R. - Local Self Government in India Special Reference State
of Maharashtra, Shri. MangeshPrakashan - Nagpur - 2005
2) Patil B.B. -Indian Government and Politics -Phadke Publications,
Kolhapur - 2006
3) Patil V. B. -Panchayat Raj and Nagari Local Self Government
Instit utions in Maharashtra - K. Sagar Publication, Pune - 2005
4) PawarJ E. V. A., Yadav Chandrasekhar -Administrative and Financial
Management of Panchayat Raj Institutions, YashwantraoChavan
Development Administration Academy, Pune - 07. 2004 munotes.in

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5) V aubuddhe B.A. C., Bharatkar S.R. -Decentralized Planning,
YashwantraoChavan Development Administration Academy, Pune - 7
- 2004
6) Kulkarni A.N., -Local Self Government VidyaPrakashan in India,
Nagpur – 2000
7) KanetkarMedha -Fifty years of Indian planning - Shri.
SainathPrakashan, Nagpur – 2007 .



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